Buddhist Ethics and Education

The Most Ven. Ching Hsin Rector, Ching Cheuh Buddhist Sangha University, Chinese Taipei

It is my pleasure to attend “The First Summit of the International Association of Buddhist Universities (IABU) and International Academic Seminar on Buddhism and Ethics” held at the new campus of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University at Wang Noi, Ayutthaya Province in Bangkok, Thailand. It is my honor to have the opportunity to deliver my humble opinions.

In the time when ethics are losing or being forgotten and human relations are sinking, it is the right time to hold the symposium on Buddhism and Ethics. The seminar is imperative and meaningful. The results of the discussions are absolutely helpful to the world.

The main theme of the symposium is Buddhism and Ethics, including the eight sub-themes: Buddhist Ethics and Economy, Buddhist Ethics and Education, Buddhist Ethics and Literature, Buddhist Ethics and Mind Culture, Buddhist Ethics and Politics, Buddhist Ethics and Science, Buddhist Ethics and Social Development, and Buddhist Ethics and Youth Today. Each of them is very meaningful. Being an education practitioner, I certainly choose Buddhist Ethics and Education to share my personal humble opinions without any hesitation. Today’s education only emphasizes on the knowledge of technology but neglects the establishment of good human personality and culture. In such an educational environment, our children will be educated to be such people only possessing high technology knowledge, without caring for morality and developing a good personality. This is why ethics are losing and human relations are sinking in today’s society. If Buddhist education only focuses on the studies of scriptures and theories but ignores the cultivation of human personality, morality, and culture, we will educate our Sanghas to be scholars merely with professional Buddhist knowledge instead of having good personality and morality after they get the degree of Bachelor, Master, or Doctor. Some excellent Buddhist scholars who have great achievement in academic studies have the same problem as mentioned above. We should pay more attention to this situation and think of how to improve it.

Confucianism emphasizes on ethics – through the so-called five constant virtues, including: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity. All sentient beings should comply with these five humanities. Besides, morality is the foundational principle of all human relations. Although “morality” – as a term, is not mentioned in Mahayana sutras, Buddhism puts great stress on this aspect of morality and ethics.

Buddhist morality is derived from the theory of dependent origination. Everything and everyone in the world cannot exist alone but needs to help each other and depend on one another. When people help others or receive other people’s help and depend on one another – ethical relations are produced. The main characteristics of Buddhist morality are the organization and standard of Sangha. The Eight Right Ways

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gives all sentient beings the right guidance and correct direction to behave properly. Therefore, the basic principle of Buddhist morality is the Eight Right Ways.

According to the Six Principles of Reverent Harmony in Mahayana sutras, Buddhist practitioners should work in harmony and be respectful of one another. The Six Principles of Reverent Harmony are (1) action, (2) word, (3) mind, (4) observance of the precepts, (5) congenial views, and (6) an average allotment of the possession or goods. Sanghas should follow the six points and maintain a harmonious, united, and happy life.

The Eight Commands were given by Buddha to Mahaprajapati. These are the ethics and standards for Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni to obey. According to Mahayana sila, Sanghas have to follow: “Who accepts the ordination first, has the right to sit first, and in the front; the latter has to sit later and in the back.” In Vinaya Pitaka, there are relevant ethics and standards for Samanera and Bhikkhu and teachers and disciples to follow. Besides, there are detailed standards for lay Buddhist practitioners to comply with towards getting along with monks or nuns.

In a word, the strict practice of morality and ethics is essential to the unity and consolidation of Buddhist groups. The Sangha, as a model for all – should strictly follow the standards of morality and ethics, and naturally we can win the respect of all from heart. In this way, dignity will be naturally expressed as well. Then, we can teach and educate all sentient beings with great dignity. Hopefully, Buddhism will be prosperous. I really praise this conference for the meaningful themes on Buddhism and Ethics. I deeply expect that all Buddhist universities can be the breeding ground for talent with good personalities and virtues, besides being just institutions providing high Buddhist knowledge for the Sangha.

The Practicability of Buddhist Ethics in Modern Education

Most Ven. Dhammavamso, Rector of Vietnam Theravada Buddhist College, Hue City

Fundamental Concepts of Buddhist Ethics:

Ethics in the sense of moral principles appeared very early in the Buddhist teachings. It may be said that they were formed ever since the Buddha and his immediate disciples gathered in one place for the purpose of studying and practicing his teachings. Accordingly, it is evident that Buddhist ethics originated from the practical needs of Buddhist monks in their pursuit of the path leading to the ultimate goal: liberation from suffering. Otherwise, ethics were set forth to meet the Sangha’s needs in disciplining its members and assembling them under common conditions – living and working together in a highly democratic community. In this connection, Buddhist ethics have gradually grown into an indispensable part in structured Buddhist education.

Generally speaking, Buddhist education aims at training humans to liberate themselves away from suffering. This aim is formulated by the Buddha in the Four Noble Truths. After expounding these to his earliest disciples – proceeding from the First and Second Truths, he affirmed that there was a path overcoming the gloomy side towards the attainment of ultimate bliss. In order to achieve this aim, Buddhist followers are thus advised to strictly follow only this path. Accordingly, there are eight factors or conditions to fulfill, some of which are: Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood – considered the moral basis (sīla) for higher stages of discipline [further using concentration or samādhi, and wisdom or paññā].

Apart from this ethical foundation, various rules of conduct and discipline were circumstantially introduced throughout his preaching career. These rules served as favorable conditions to assist disciples to develop their individual discipline and for maintaining the perfected community. Such community was helpful in many aspects: facilitating the Buddha’s task of preaching, providing a favorable seat of learning and practicing for his disciples; and served as the background of their mission of spreading the Buddha’s teachings among masses – near and far. For such a community to be maintained and developed – it was necessary for all its members to observe certain regulations. The history of developments in Buddhism owes thanks and appreciation towards these monastic communities or Sangha in Buddhist terminology. The Buddha’s teachings were disseminated and preserved through the monastic community – further accentuating how disciplinary rules have been so strongly emphasized in Buddhist monastic cultures. After the Buddha’s passing away, rules were recollected and systematized into one of the “Three Baskets” of Buddhist literature, the Vinaya-pitaka.

Thus, the Vinaya-pitaka may be considered the most systematic and voluminous documentary evidence of Buddhist emphasis on ethics. There is no doubt that such an emphasis may be found not only in the Vinaya-pitaka but also in the other

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Baskets, since the Buddha’s teachings are for all beings. In the Sigalovada Sutta, for instance, there are suggestions for moral conduct for lay-followers. These suggestions were formulated by the Buddha as necessary conditions for perfecting lay-follower’s personality and good family; hence, another peaceful community. They are further summarized into the five principal precepts, observed by all Buddhist lay-people, these are: refraining from killing, not taking what is not given, refraining from prohibited sexual activity, refraining from unjust speech, abstaining from intoxicating substances.

These fundamental concepts demonstrate how Buddhist ethics cover three major fields of Buddhist education: (1) individually, they aim at helping a Sangha member with the process of purifying body and mind, serving as a means of developing his wholesome faculties (kusala-indriya) into favorable conditions of achieving the ultimate liberation; (2) monastically, they serve as the pivotal foundation for all sorts of Sangha’s activities, and as unique support for any possible preservation and development of Buddhist Teachings in the world; (3) socially, in lay people’s living they serve as basic conditions of making a morally perfect personality; hence, a happy family life and a peacefully developing country.

The Practical Value of Buddhist Ethics in Improving Individual and Community:

All the above-mentioned positive characteristics of Buddhist ethics and their practical influence on human life may be easily recognized by any reader interested in the history of Buddhist development – inside and outside India. The most obvious evidence was given by the Buddha himself, immediate disciples, and the Buddhist monastic order over time. Numerous stories of the Buddha’s former lives recorded in Jataka, and in the Buddha’s lifetime through various Buddhist accounts – tell us: how and what he did towards saving other beings’ lives; to liberate himself out of suffering; to realize the Perfect Enlightenment; to teach human beings and deities to improve themselves and the world in which they are living. For such a perfect personality as the Buddha’s to be achieved, two essential qualities must not be lacking: compassion (karuna) and wisdom (paññā).

Since the Buddha’s lifetime, these two qualities nurtured Buddhist living, that is: living with monastic or lay followers, in a community of Buddhist monks, and also towards distinguishing types of Buddhist followers from the other. After the Buddha passed away, the Buddhist Sangha preserved and spread his message of compassion and wisdom. Internally, they continued to train themselves in accordance with what their Great Master had taught: morality developing parallel with wisdom. Externally, they tried their best to spread that message in Indian society at the time. It would not be an exaggeration for us to state that never previously before in the history of mankind has there been any message fraught with so much humanity as the message disseminated by the Buddha to Indian society at that time. In social life the message appeals for an immediate abolition of any possible discrimination of social and racial classes; in individual life, it appeals for a restoration of human freedom; that is: a total abandonment of any human bondage of an absolute Creator, a dominating Self, the worship of superhuman forces, rituals of sacrifice, and so forth. It affirms that the individual human alone, is responsible for all that he has done. Not any forces, whether natural or supernatural, can determine and arrange his destiny unless he

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voluntarily allows his own life to be conditioned by them. This illustrates the primary and final freedom that the Buddha’s message intends for humanity.

In the world’s history such freedom could be obviously expressed in the personality of Emperor Asoka in India in the 3^rd century BCE. As the supreme sovereign of a vast empire, Asoka possessed rampant power and authority to make final decisions of which various contemporary systems of morality were implemented towards improving and developing his vast empire. There were then for his selection at least two major moral systems flourishing in India, that is: traditional morality and Buddhist morality. The former accrued the submission of humans towards the Absolute Being (Brahman) through the worship of all kinds of gods, discrimination of racial and social classes, the sacrifice of animals, and so on. The later, on the contrary, is based totally on the principle of causal dependence. All that creates a sentient being is what he has done and is doing; in other words, it is the status quo of all his actions of mind, speech and body that makes him what he is. Not any God, not any superhuman forces, not any designations, not any social conventions but all the mental and physical constituent conditions of a human’s existence decides what he truly is. On this guiding principle, Buddhist ethics are formed to help human beings improve themselves by transforming such constituent conditions of their existence from evil to good, from imperfect to perfect. In the Buddhist view it is only with such a transformation that a perfect personality can be truly made, a good family can be formed, and a peaceful and prosperous country can be founded. The existent edicts by the Emperor Asoka, inscribed on rocks and stone pillars, reveal his decision; and historical accounts tell us about how a bloodthirsty conqueror was transformed into a benevolent, brilliant emperor as well as an empire in incessant warfare into a peaceful and prosperous India.

Another illustration we would like to present to the Conference today is also about an emperor, but not in India. In the 11^th century CE, the Vietnamese people underwent, for the first time in their national history, the rule of a king who had been raised and educated rightly, in Buddhist monasteries, namely: the Emperor Thai To of Ly Dynasty. Born in 974, Ly was sent to the Co Phap Temple at the age of three. The temple was then presided over by Zen Master Van Hanh, who had been a special advisor to the previous imperial court. Under the personal instructions of Master Van Hanh and then of Zen Master Da Bao at the Kien So Temple, Ly gradually acquired a wide knowledge of not only Buddhist teachings but also of other branches of learning at the time. It should be noticed that, since there were not any state-run academic institutions in Vietnam at that time, most of Buddhist temples and monasteries served as seats of learning for mostly the intellectual circle across the country. After leaving the temple Ly worked as Commander of Imperial Guards under the reign of Le Long Dinh, who was an extremely brutal king. One of this king’s most favorite recreations was to watch killing. He took pleasure in watching prisoners or criminals being executed or tortured to death by means of extremely barbarous instruments. It is recorded in Vietnamese official history books that the king once had summoned the Supreme Patriarch Quach Mao, ordering him to kneel down on the ground and hold up his head firmly as if a block of wood on which he could remove sugarcane bark. Owing to the king’s inhuman and immoral conduct – the courtiers, at his death in the fourth year of his reign, agreed to select Ly as successor to the imperial throne. Immediately after being enthroned in 1009, Ly carried out a new policy of reforming

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and developing the country. From his own experience of a countryman disciplined and educated in Buddhist monasteries, he knew exactly what had to be done for his nation and people. On the one hand he maintained Buddhist temples and monasteries as centers of education and culture, where competent trainees would be supplied as soon as possible for his court as qualified officials and missionaries; on the other, he ordered as many temples and monasteries to be quickly built. Shortly after the capital was removed from Hoa Lu in Ninh Binh to Thang Long in present-day Hanoi, eight temples were built as educational and cultural institutions in the Thien Duc Prefecture, hundreds of temples in other parts of the country were reconstructed – more than one thousand men in the capital city were ordained as Buddhist monks.

No doubt, various policies concerning other fields of development of the country were simultaneously carried out by the Emperor Ly; for the dynasty of which he was the first emperor became well known as one of the most peaceful and prosperous ages in Vietnamese history. The above-mentioned events, however, may suffice to illustrate the fact that educational policies employed by Emperor Ly were completely based upon the fundamental principles of Buddhist Teachings. As a well-disciplined Buddhist follower, Ly comprehended that the so-called ‘nation’ was nothing but a ‘designation’ (paññatti) denoting a large community of people sharing a common history. Conventionally, there exists a community as such; yet, the genuine existence of this community is in essence the existence of its members. And each member participates in the formation of community through his own actions of speech and body, which are for the most part motivated by his own volition (cetana), or rather, by his own states of mind and body. Accordingly, this existence of individuals determines the essence of the community in which they exist, and not vice versa. On this principle there is not a peaceful and prosperous country if its people are not industrious and peace-loving. Even Buddhism cannot go beyond this principle. There will never be a truly pure Buddhist community, irrespective of whatsoever holy label put on it, if its members are not pure. It was from such a view of the true nature of any conditioned existence that Ly had decided to select the Buddhist teachings in general and Buddhist ethics in particular as the most crucial condition of educating his people to develop and protect the country. The reasons for his choice may be summarized as follows:

(1)   Of the three ideologies, Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, flourishing
in his country at the time, Ly realized that only the Buddhist ideology could meet
the urgent requirements of his country’s advancement. Taoism is too much interested in
the   spontaneity   of individual   living  to   boost  the   development   of a   country.
Confucianism, in spite of its systematic doctrine of an ideal social structure, fails to
help people to abandon their abiding attachment to individual and social achievements.
Towards the successful advanced-development of the nation, he needed officials
possessing two qualities: morality based on altruism and good all-round knowledge -
knowledge of the administration and other fields of social life. If they had morality but
not knowledge, they would be good for nothing; on the contrary, if they had good
knowledge but not morality, their possession of some authority or position would
become harmful to others and to the whole governing machinery. Without any system
of laws properly established his country’s prosperity and development had to depend
mostly upon personal qualities of officials and functionaries.

(2)   The Vietnamese Sangha at the time comprised a great number of qualified

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monks. They were versed not only in the Buddhist teachings but also in various branches of work and study such as Taoism, Confucianism, history, geography, astronomy, handicraft, agriculture, and so on. It may be said that this is one of the characteristics of Buddhism in Vietnam. Out of the reality that they were living in an agricultural country frequently threatened by either natural disasters or wars, Vietnamese Buddhist monks understood clearly that, if they wanted to preserve and introduce the Buddhist teachings to the people effectively, they had to learn how to carry out Buddhist activities not in the mountains but just amidst the world. Accordingly, in addition to academic activities in monasteries and missionary activities among the population, some of them were invited to work as emissaries, receive foreign emissaries, or serve as special advisors to imperial courts. It was due to such a great variety of activities that the Buddhist Sangha together with their lay people came to be the most powerful and influential force of the Vietnamese people at the time.

(3) Ruling a country in which the administrative system was not founded on any educational system, that is, without any academic institutions for training officials and missionaries for the government, the Emperor Ly could not help employing the source of human labor supplied by the Buddhist Sangha from their own academic institutions to meet the urgent requirements of development, particularly when this source could supply for his court those officials who were qualified in both morality and ability. Consequently, not only did he go on renovating the existing Buddhist institutions but he also ordered many other ones to be built across the country.

A Practicable Application of Buddhist Ethics to Education in the Modern World:

The afore-said illustrations may, to some extent, present the positive and practical influence of Buddhist education upon human society during the course of its development. For the past decades the Buddhist Sanghas together with their lay devotees in many different countries have made their great efforts to preserve and develop this educational tradition. Based on the universal development of the world today, it may be said that their efforts aim at not only preserving an educational tradition that was founded more than two thousand years ago but also making, through this tradition, some possible contributions to the development of the world. Today, this development, in spite of its different forms in different countries and regions of the world, has a common point with the West – since the Renaissance and the East in the past century – both have developed along materialistic lines. In the course of such developments, there is no doubt that various things are being replaced with others in both the environmental and human fields. The increasing deterioration of our environment along with its global changes of climate, atmosphere, ecological and geological conditions, and so on, may be too evident for all of us to deal with. The point mentioned here is the change of moral and spiritual values in human society, which takes its root in the change of education.

In order to serve the development along the afore-said lines there have undoubtedly been some changes in the educational field of modern world, of which the most remarkable is of the objective of education. Generally speaking, in modern education, students are for the most part trained and educated to become not free and perfect people, but specialists in many different branches of work and study, as well as

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in many different fields of social life. There is little doubt that such a tendency in education has proceeded from the requirements developing the world. We have few ideas of giving any remarks on its pragmatic value in modern living. The point demonstrated here is that such education methods indicate that student-specialists, in a certain field, will hardly have a perfect understanding of other fields, including himself – not as a physical structure or a psychological organism, but as an extremely complicated individual of mental and physical operations in relation with others in a community. For that reason, in order to have a rather general knowledge, the student-specialist must gather additional information supplied by specialists in other fields. Accordingly, most of the information he has gathered is provided not from his insight into the true essence of things but either from other sources or from his superficial grasping of the phenomenal world – often as interpreted by others. Although this information may then be regarded as nothing other than a description of things, it is extremely necessary for him because all of his ideas, thoughts, decisions, feelings, and sensations can hardly be formed or raised without it. In this case it would be hard for him to think or feel freely; instead, his thinking and feeling are raised and restricted within a certain fixed pattern, logical or psychological, formed in his mind not by his personal experience but by descriptions [often provided by others], alone. In Buddhism, such a process of cognition is considered to be based on the view of things not “as they are” but “as they have passed into the past”. Hence, the student-specialist possesses nothing other than collected-delusions. For everything is in constant change. In this way, the more knowledge one gathers, the more separated from reality one is; the more personally-engaged with the phenomenal world, both physical and psychology, the more strongly one is controlled by “name” (nama) and “form” (rupa) -losing control of himself unconsciously. By “unconsciously” we mean that he is not aware that feelings are being controlled not by oneself but by patterns defined by educational and social conventions. One’s thinking is directed not by personal insight but by descriptions collected from all that has passed away. So one may be doing something wrong but thinks it would be right; one may be doing something harmful to oneself and others, but firmly believes it is useful.

As a student born and raised in one of the most powerful countries of the world, for instance, one feels satisfied with: the pure environment in which he is living, with the academic institution he is attending, with the modern education he is receiving, with the well-developed industry and technology whose products he is enjoying. He would be satisfied with these things; and he would be kind enough to wish that all the underdeveloped countries in the world may soon be well developed as his country. But, ironically, he never wishes he could learn from the knowledge collected from the educational and the phenomenal world, or from personal-insight -the true cause and state of his country’s development, and its global influence in every aspect of life on earth. He knows that his country’s environment is kept pure, but he never asks himself how it may be kept as such with so many harmful chemical and industrial wastes thrown away every day by well-developed industry; and so forth. As a student supposedly to have been educated to love peace and hate war, one is willing to join demonstrations to protest war in some distantly-removed place across the world. After demonstrating, one is comforted because of this small contribution to the movement of making peace in the world.  Through this recent act of selflessness,

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through being concerned with other people in the world; and with such thoughts, one can feel quite comfortable and sleep soundly afterward. He never knows that wars already erupting can never be stopped with demonstrations, a great number of demonstrations, or a worldwide appeal for peace. One never comprehends that it can only cease through halting all the conditions that created the disruption – including the so-called modern educational system in which he has been trained. Certainly he would not and could not accept the last idea previously suggested unless insight is gained into the inner-relations between this system of education and all the current crises on earth.

From the Buddhist view: the modern education, in spite of its variety of systems and structures in different countries in the world, will not and cannot help to stop crises and conflicts caused by current world developments. The single reason for this is that it is not intended to do this. In this education-system, a student is educated:

(1)  Not to free himself out of his negative states of mind, which arise from
the two abiding, deep-rooted ideas within himself, which is:  self-protection and
self-preservation. For self-protection he has to depend upon the force of something else
as a safe support, such as a family, a gathering of friends, a group of colleagues,
a community of people sharing the same race or belief or nationality, and so forth.
For self-preservation he has to seek for wealth and power. From these two ideas there
accrue various volitions, good or bad, which control and direct his actions of thinking,
speaking and acting.  Accordingly, when he is educated to love or serve, for instance,
there is no doubt that he must love or serve himself first, then his relatives, his friends,
his colleagues, his native land, his country, etc.   Such a love or service is, of course,
quite reasonable because it accords with many concepts he has been taught concerning
the protection and preservation of himself, of his family, of his organization, of his
company, of his nation, and so on.  The noteworthy point is that if his love or service
arises from his consciousness of self-protection and self-preservation, it may inevitably
cause negative frustrations or conflicts, first within himself and then in the world
around. To gratify his unwholesome desires, for instance, he is ready to reject his good
volitions, if any. To preserve himself as a whole he may reject his relatives. To protect
his family he may reject his friends, and so on.

(2)   Not to  be  perfect.     By  “perfect”  it means,  in Buddhism,  perfect
understanding (paññā). Perfect understanding is the understanding of something, not
by description of it but by insight into it. All that may be felt, conceived, or grasped by
human beings are viewed in Buddhism as conditioned; that is to say, they are formed by
at least two conditions.   They can arise neither from only one condition nor from no
condition at all. In this connection, a conditioned thing arises in a twofold existence: its
form and its nature.  So for a thing to be fully comprehended, both its form and nature
must be penetrated.   On the absolute level, it does not have its own nature or self-
nature, in Buddhist terms, because it is conditioned.   Relatively, however, its nature
refers to all the conditions that are being combined with each other to give its form.
Thus a perfect understanding is an insight into the currently changing conditions of
a thing, which manifests under certain forms, and at the same time into the absence of
what is conventionally called “self-nature.” For such an understanding to be achieved,
a student must be disciplined to get rid of all kinds of his own experience,
psychological, logical and even intellectual, during the course of his cognition; for it is
due to the intervention of his experience that distorts his true understanding, hinders

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him from getting an insight into a thing as it is.

A human being viewed in such light is nothing other than physically and mentally changing conditions, bearing a distinct name and certain form – distinguishing one from another. Thus, in appearance one exists as an independent being from others; yet, in essence indifferent from others because there is no self-nature. As a result, a true understanding means an insight into the operation of mental and physical conditions, moment after moment. This illustrates the fact that our understanding of ourselves and the world around is quite relative, and thus not perfect, since it arises not from direct experience but from our experience of what has passed away.

We have discussed in brief two characteristic features, i.e., freedom and perfection of the Buddhist educational tradition, in which an individual is considered an inseparable part of the world. From this fundamental standpoint, the preliminary requirement for a Buddhist student is learning how to control oneself first – that is to say, gain knowledge of the general operation of physical and particularly mental factors within. Upon this knowledge, one becomes disciplined to weaken step by step and then abandon unwholesome states of mind, which affect and distort true understanding of oneself and the world around. At the same time, arousing and strengthen wholesome states of mind, which may overcome frustration and conflicts caused by unwholesome states becomes necessary. In such a process of discipline, the mind is gradually kept calm long enough to penetrate deeply into the phenomenal world including all that is taking place within and with the external world. This penetrating view is absolutely important towards comprehending the true nature of phenomena – causes and conditions, mutual relations with others, and thus the way of treating or dealing with situations. In addition, these activities serve as the foundation for Buddhist students in every aspect of individual and social life. If students understand that there is not a so-called “evil person” but only evil volitions or evil actions which arise within that person, self-love would arise easily and naturally as evident in other so-called “good people.” If understanding causal dependence of all so-called “nations” in the world, conventional values of geographical boundaries, living and working conditions of humanity on the same planet – one would never accept the idea that war must be made somewhere else on earth to help preserve peace in one’s own country; that conflicts in every aspect of social life must be activated in some countries to help preserve the economic development of one’s own country; that the pristine environment of some nation must be sacrificed for the pure environment of one’s own country, and so forth.

Conclusion:

The presentation above concerning the way of understanding and activity of a Buddhist student with regard to oneself and the world around are only some factual illustrations of the objective of a traditional Buddhist education. For more than two thousand and five hundred years those who have been educated and disciplined in this educational system have never waged war of any kind, in any place – on this planet. Instead, they perform for the benefit of humanity and deities – exactly in accordance with the advice of their Compassionate Teacher. The reason for this may now be no longer misunderstood by those who would question if Buddhist teachings might be purely individualistic, pessimistic, nihilistic, etc. A question which may be raised here

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is: what is contributed to current world developments by these teachings?

Before giving the answer, let us confirm the fact that Buddhism in general has never aimed at changing the whole world. The world as it is arises and disappears owes nothing to the arising and disappearing of its own conditions, including mankind and its activities. So it is not any God, not any superhuman force but humanity deciding the destiny of this planet. Upon this principle, the only thing Buddhism can do is to show or remind humanity how and what they have to do to preserve the world and all kinds of life living on it, as great as possible. So far, if humans lack true comprehension of the true nature of the world and the true cause of the world, they will never find out an appropriate way to change the world. All these things were already introduced to mankind over twenty five centuries ago, by Buddha Gotama, the Sakyamuni. Yet, how many people across the world have attempted to study and apply these techniques towards the development of themselves and the world? From the Buddhist view, development in the true sense of the term does not and cannot mean the increase of delusions, selfish desires, hatred, jealousy, pride, impurity, frustrations, conflicts, warfare, terrors, famine, natural disasters, and the like. If all of these things may be regarded as part of the whole current development of the world, Buddhism will not and cannot contribute anything to it. Instead, Buddhism is making its greatest efforts to preserve and develop its educational tradition in many different forms: a temple, a monastery, a school, a college, a university, a center of Buddhist culture, a meditation institution, and so on, for the purpose not of contributing to but attempting to balance the world’s development – that is, to become a constructive institution among numerous destructive conditional-elements within this present global-system. For that reason, it must not be misunderstood that Buddhist institutions of all kinds have been built to introduce Buddhist teachings as branches of learning, such as: philosophy, religion, theology, psychology, ethics, educational methodology, etc., to the world -just as it was ever suggested that techniques of Buddhist meditation might be applied to the increase of production labor in factories. Buddhist education is characterized by the consistent combination of learning and discipline. Therefore, it is no use to think that Buddhist teachings, the whole or some part of it, should be chosen as a branch of learning, or as a department, or as a faculty among the others of a certain college or university. For if limited, it will then provide for the world, not free and perfect beings, but specialists in Buddhist Philosophy, Buddhist Psychology, etc., even in Buddhist Ethics. These specialists may acquire an excellent knowledge of Buddhism in every aspect; yet, they will surely go on to contribute to numerous crises of the world – since their existence among humanity remains being founded on self-protection and self-preservation. Therefore, it may be rather obvious for us to demonstrate practicable solutions to what was presented so far – based upon facts:

• Buddhist ethics, or rather, Buddhist moral principles, can maintain their intrinsic
  worth and practical functions only in those achieving some level of positive
  transformation in their states of mind…
• Only those who have achieved some level of such a transformation can apply these
  principles effectively…
• For some levels of transformation to be achieved, the study and practice of
  meditation (vipassana) in some measure are indispensable…

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• To attend and maintain the above course of discipline, a philosophical passion for Buddhism, that is, a new view of human life and the world, must be aroused and kept alive in each member of the course…

It may prove that Buddhist ethics cannot be separataly employed as an independent subject from others in a certain curriculum. Instead, it must be applied in connection with Buddhist philosophy, with Buddhist meditation in the sense of the practice of insight, and with the discipline of transforming physical and mental conditions individually. All these applications, therefore, must be carried out in a single course, which is opened not in parallel with other courses, but as the fundamental course for all others. Naturally, for such a system of education to be effectively carried out, it is to require, in the first place, much more effort from every Buddhist Sangha in different countries. For, on the one hand they have to preserve their current monastic academic institutions so as to be able to provide expert instructors for those ‘Buddhist’ courses; on the other hand, they have to found by themselves Buddhist colleges and universities for both Buddhist and non-Buddhist students who want to be trained in such an education system. In these new institutions, of course, students may have to choose, apart from the Buddhist course, other required courses. In reality, it is hard for the educators in non-Buddhist academic institutions to expect some prospect for such a model of education. Yet, they will undoubtedly wait and see. By the time they are awakened that their current education system in some respects, has been one of the destructive conditions of the world itself, and that great efforts to reduce and weaken partly, the destruction of the world caused by human beings, has been silently and incessantly made in many different Buddhist academic institutions of the world so far – then they certainly must reflect upon what they have been doing, not by means of the great knowledge they have acquired, but through their own insight.

In summary, it should be affirmed again, that Buddhist teachings in general and Buddhist ethics in particular, existent on earth for more than two millennia, are not intended to present humanity with a utopian-system of education or society; nor are they intended to become the greatest religion or philosophy that should dominate humanity. The Buddha Sakyamuni’s message to humanity conveys the significance of compassion and wisdom. A decision to choose the Heavenly-Kingdom or the Darkness of Hell depends entirely upon all of humanity.

Buddhist Ethics and Trends in Education

Dr. Subhadr Panyadeep World Buddhist University, Thailand

Introduction:

Humanity stands at this century’s end in a situation of extraordinary challenge and openness. Scientific and technological advances are creating new opportunities on a scale previously unimagined, even as they threaten to destroy the very foundation of human life. The forces of a globalizing economy are creating great widen the gap between the haves and haves-not within and among societies and nations. Increasing global interdependence gives rise to ever more complex transboundary questions, defying traditional situations.

Ideas and institutions, values and practices that served humanities so well in its endeavor to industrialize and modernize are increasingly called into question. Individualism, rationalism, scientism and teleology of progress, which had been the driving forces of the modern industrial civilization, seem now to be working at cross purposes with the tasks of human survival and flourishing as societies and nations attempt to come to terms with the new historical realities. Yet, no culture is possible without agreement on a foundation of common values and ideas to guide the tasks of governance.

Here then is a common ethical framework within which all Buddhist cultures, societies and individuals are invited to deliberate on the tasks of survival and flourishing. It invites all stakeholders in the ethics of the 21^st Century to take their respective positions. It will lead to a common ethical vision and a process that must be nurtured in an open-ended way through dialogue mutual learning, and, above all, good will, namely¹:

1. Relationship to Nature
2. Human Fulfillment
3. Individual and community
4. justice

As we consider the alternative views on the nature of values, we need to asses the various methods of justifying value judgments. Here, come up the epistemological question: “How does one know?” Now, as we enter the field of axiology [the study of the nature, types, and governing criteria of values and value judgments], we rephrase the question and ask, “what sorts of reasons and what kind of thinking justify a value judgment. Such questions concern the logics of ethics, and, logically speaking, they come first; when you say what you value, you imply a prior stand on how you value. However, psychologically speaking, the process is reversed.   We make all sorts of

¹ OTTO Chang (2002); An Article on “Humanistic BUDDHISM and Knowledge of Ethics   Management, Hshi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism, vol.3 p.227-243

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claims about what is valuable (normative ethics), and only later, if ever, do we examine the grounds for our value-beliefs, their logical foundations (which involves us in the inquiry known as meta-ethics). Can any theory about what is valuable be valid unless the thinking leading to it is itself sound and reliable?

Questions to consider (philosophically)

1. Is lying always wrong?
2. When I want to do something but society says it is wrong, how can one decide
   which course to take?
   1. Why not get fun of life without worrying about long-term consequences?
   2. Is it wrong to try out things, like: cocaine?
   3. Who really has the authority to set up rules about right and wrong?
   4. Is conscience a reliable guide?
   5. Isn’t every act selfish, because even martyrs do what gives them satisfaction?
   6. Don’t we say Thai life is better simply because we’ve been brought up that
      way? In other words, aren’t all values relative?

Value question can be approached in two quite different ways: take the proposition “It is bad to lie”. Why is it lying bad?

One answer would be,

“Because it is morally wrong; it violates a moral law and it is our duty to obey moral law” right or duty (deontological theory)

Another answer might be,

“Because lying has undesirable consequences; it destroys people’s trust in one another, and such trust is an ingredient of a satisfying human life and the second a “consequence” or “good life” (teleological theory)

Conclusion of the manual of ethics – An Ethical continuum²:

-  Utilitarianism                                                    -Situationism

-  Egoism                                                              – Rational choice

-  Cultural Relativism                                          – Objectivism or subjectivism

-  Relativism                                                         -Absolutism
(Feeling, culture, consequences)                    (Law, reason, reality)

In the course of making day-to-day choices involving a value dimension, we must operate in terms of a fundamental ethical decision. Our motives can be either egoistic or altruistic. We can choose or adopt or reject the key principle that each person is to count as one. We can be guided by an ethic of rules or by an ethic of consequences. We must make choices about the kind of people we are to become.

In the final analysis, each of us must make a personal decision. However, our decision concerning the nature of values and the methods for justifying value

‘ Honer/Hunt/Okholm: (2002): “Invitation to Philosophy” Thomson Learning, Singapore. P. 162

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judgments need not be made in an arbitrary fashion. We can choose responsibility after a careful examination of the available options (including a check of their claims against the findings of the natural and social sciences) and after an imaginative assessment of the overall way of life within which our preferred option would find its place. Ultimately, perhaps the most precious ingredient in a way of life is not a constellation of “content” values but an open and deeply questioning process for making value commitments.

Education – Introducing, Science, Education and Ethical Values into the Buddhist Classroom and Laboratory:

My most respected Venerable and distinguished guests and Buddhist scholars, this symposium concentrates on the integration of Buddhist ethics with Science and Education, and perhaps little on ethical reflection itself. Had implications for:

• its structure
• the subjects to be discussed
• the speakers and participants to be invited?

The speakers were experts on more theoretical questions, such as:

• moral reasoning,
• collective decision-making
• the methodology of science
• science and Buddhism
• moral development

…or more practical questions such as development, testing of new teaching materials and curriculum developments (ethics, psychology, philosophy of science, Buddhism and education). Please look at these models:

Figure 1 = Models of Science Curriculum and associated STS studies: (STS = Science, Technology and Society):

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I have, (as requested), discussed some alternatives to present patterns of science education, and some implications towards being properly integrated into the applied course of Buddhist Ethics in Thailand for the years of B.E. 2552/3. This might be considered as a compromise between the teachers and students from the contexts of differing “texture” and rationale in their appropriate contexts of ethics.

Role of Concern – The situations are as follows:

There is an urgent need for all Buddhists to pay more attention to ethical/moral implications of science in science education at all levels. How do we implement new educational approaching to the Buddhist World University’s curriculum? There are roughly three situations in which you have to deal with adoption and implementation, namely:³

• You wish to innovate your own teaching. (Buddhism);
  • You wish to innovate the teaching of your colleagues in your own institution or
    school;
  • You wish to innovate the teaching of ethics and education outside your own
    institutes or Universities.

The concept of “stages of concern from all various communities in your society, must be called for fixing pattern of concerns to implement an innovation that is essential to know. Those stages of concern are as follows:

³ Ibids; pp. 43, 45, 46, 50.

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• awareness
• information
• personal
• management
• consequence
• refocusing

With the help of a questionnaire, one can measure the extent of the concern. It is possible here to draw from the scores on this questionnaire a profile of a person’s concerns before an implementation process. The concerns of teachers can greatly impact curriculum change. Five dimensions of a teacher are as follows:

• subject matter or materials;
• organizational structure;
• role/behavior;
• knowledge and understanding
• Value internalization.

These dimensions are very fruitful in understanding the complexity of the process, of innovation and competency. However there are also differences between scientific and moral reasoning. In scientific reasoning one explains how things can happen; in moral reasoning one justifies why one is obliged to do what is to be done. In short, both in science and ethics argumentation is a technique for providing reasons for accepting: claims to truth of rightness. However, science resorts to explanatory and ethics to justificatory reasons. The structure of argument shows an explanation as follows:

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Figure 2:

This claim of argument involved in real life arguments are well-founded only if sufficient grounds of an appropriate and relevant kind can be offered in your support. These grounds must be connected to the claims by reliable, applicable warrants, which are capable in turn of being justified by appeal to sufficient backing of the relevant kind. In moral reasoning the argument concerns justifying reasons:

Figure 3 – Scientific Reasoning:

Laboratory studies on temple problems from closely related species and genera have repeatedly confirmed – that:

Temples from closely related botanical genera may be expected frequently to contain similar substances.

Temples belong to the botanical genus solanum. Many living things of the same genus and others closely related genera have poisonous foliage and barriers.

Temples may have poisonous foliage and berries.

Unless after all the foliage of living things in the temples bio-chemically resemble that of Phra Keo Temple rather than that of nightshade

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Figure 4 – Moral Reasoning:

It is wrong to lie.

The prisoner lied under interrogation.

presumably

The prisoner acted wrongly.

Unless he did so to prevent innocent people from being killed by criminals. criminals.

Since the principle of not killing innocent people over rules the principle of truth telling in cases of conflict.

Since a world of institutionalized killing is even worse than a world of in institutionalized lying.

In scientific reasoning, if you can stay within the limits of the same story, a contradiction between the pro-evidence (the backing) and the con-evidence (the rebuttal) says that at least one of them cannot be true, whereas a contradiction between the two pro-and con-in moral reasoning does not say that, but obliges you to choose which of the two principles involved over-rules the other.

In scientific reasoning you normally stay within the limits of backing and rebuttal (if you cannot give a satisfactory explanation in that way you switch over to an alternative theory) where as in moral reasoning you always can go beyond the basic principles of backing and rebuttal into the domain of the pre-moral preferences for a certain concept of human well-being.

In the next example, certain domains indicate going reliant on the limit of the moral argument into a domain of pre-moral preferences for a certain concept of human oral being. This going-beyond is necessary to point out the non-arbitrariness of the moral basic rules.  It demonstrates that choosing these basic rules is a rational act

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from a rational person.

Now there are two questions to be answered. The first one is what are the basic principles used in a moral argument and they mutually related. The second is how is scientific reasoning related to moral reasoning in those cases (as is normal) in which scientific and moral arguments are both in question? These questions will be considered in the next article at this great Assembly-Hall of the Most Venerables and the Buddhist scholars, the world Buddhist University. For example:

Figure 5 – Proposed Science Education & Buddhist Ethics in Curriculum Meeting:

The Historical Survey in World Buddhism

1)      Subj ects or Contents:

History of Buddhism

Science Education

Ethics of the World Buddhism

Humanistic Buddhism and Environmental Ethics

Field-works and Study-Tours.

2)     Methodology:

Induction Deduction Reconstruction. Analysis – Synthesis Application Appreciation Service and Competency

3)     Science Education.

Science- Laboratory

Theories of Learning and education (Learning by doing)

Workshops.

4)     Competency based Recruitment and selection, namely:
Company and organization, i.e.:

Fit the right job Fit the right man

5)     Under a model for Effective Performance with:

Motive

Trait

Self-Image and social role.

Skills (Buddhism and Science).⁴

The current environmental crisis we are facing brings to our attention the critical need for some kind of individual and collective change of outlook and behavior for human survival as well as the survival of other species. This process of ethical performances includes-creating-constructing a positive, sustainable lifestyle for the future requiring healthy mental and behavioral transformation.  What are the possible future scenarios

⁴ eimtu mnoirair (2550): Competency based interview/Questions; H.R. Center Company; Bangkok.

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based on our current behavior? “Stasis, Change, or Crash” – which one is most likely?

1. Stabilize but still not solve the issues-hope of extending our time.
2. Change and simplify-transform and create sustainable numbers.
   1. Crash-like all other biological organism (most are destroyed but some
      survive) as “the seeds for the new” when the population/resource ratio is non-
      sustainable.⁵

Conclusion:

Most humans are still in the “island mentality” of destruction, we may “know” but don’t change. However, always be the optimist. It is said that “We can transform bad into good, just as we can also transcend impermanence and enter into the permanent Dhamma/Dharma realm of Thusness/Suchness.” We know what is happening to it and have the “tools”, including Ethics and abilities needed to make transformations. The choice is ours: change or extinction. We hold our own survival and evolution in our hands, and minds! Thanks for your attention and co-operation. We need your performance and metta to germinate the seeds of Buddhist Ethics in Science Education.

The Buddhist Ethics as Basis of Education

Prof. Dr. Duan Kamdee Kasetsart University, Bangkok Thailand

In the advancement of human civilization and culture, Ethics has played an important role in history. It is regarded as a subject of great interest for modern thinkers. Its problems are concerned with human conduct. The modern thinkers have tried to analyze the different ethical concepts like ‘a good society’, ‘a good nation’ to understand the deeper meaning and significance of ethical problems. Man is regarded as a unit of value and the analysis of value judgment give new perspective to understand both the man and the society. The analysis of the ethical principles and concepts have become an important study in the life of individual society and nation. Therefore, many ethical thinkers consider their task to pursue a purely theoretical study of ethical problems and value judgment as a new mode of understanding human social behavior.

In ancient times, ethics was regarded as a branch of religion, the analytic study of ethics is fulfillment of the growing inquisitiveness of the people. Today ethics is primarily connected with the basic assumptions of society and the theoretical study dealing with the ideal or standard of right and wrong, good and evil – involved in human conduct and its critical and analytic study has become the vital issues of moral life.

The Scope and Limitation of Buddhist Ethics:

Before examining the scope and limitation of Buddhist ethics, we are to fix the area of its operation because Buddhism as a moral system has an infinite variety of names and ideas in morality which sometimes, though included in the same categories are regarded as moral from entirely different point of view. In Buddhism holy-life consists of three stages i.e. sīla, samādhi and paññā.¹ Each of them serves as a sufficient condition for the other; sīla is the basic foundation of ethical life and it prepares a congenial atmosphere for samādhi rather it is conducive to samādhi and samādhi forms a background for paññā which means samādhi is conducive to paññā. With the proper fulfillment of these gradual stages, the Buddhist holy-life is complete. However, though all the three stages are complementary to each other yet each of them has its limitation; sīla provides training to the body and speech, samādhi provides mental training and paññā unfolds the nature of reality whereby the nature of the Dhamma, is clearly understood. In this way each stage has a definite function and a definite field of operation, though with congenial inter relation.

According to Buddhism in order to reach final release from suffering the Noble Eightfold Path must be strictly and perseveringly followed. In treading this Noble Path it prescribes the three graduated stages of practice. These three graduated stages must be followed respectively. As Nibbāna can be attained only when all defilements become exhausted, the purpose of following the three graduated stages of practice is but to do away with all such mental impurities. In observing sīla, the coarse

DN. III. p.220; AN. I. p.229.

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type of defilement are said to be eradicated. Paññā performs the functions of uprooting the most subtle type of defilements called anusaya. When these three forces taken together start functioning – all types of defilements are put to an end into a single moment. However, since the three stages of practice are associated with different functions, they should be considered separately.

Sīla in the context of the moral practice refers particularly to the codes of morality. In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa explains that sīla is the moral state which begin with volition present in one who abstains from killing living beings etc. or in one who fulfills the practice of the duties. There is sīla as volition, sīla as consciousness-concomitant, sīla as restraint and sīla as non-transgression.²

Sīla as volition is the volition present in one who abstains from killing beings, from stealing another’s properties etc. Sīla as consciousness-concomitant is explained as the abstinence in one who abstains from killing, stealing, etc. Sīla as restrain means the abstinence in one who dreads evil and results, from doing every kind of evil action. Sīla as non-transgression, is the non-transgression by speech and body, through the precepts that have been undertaken.³ Buddhist precepts can be classified under four heads as follows:

1. There are moral precepts laid down for male and female lay followers called
   gahattha-sīla. This refers to the five precepts (pañcasīla)4 which lay Buddhists are
   required to observe regularly and the eight precepts (atthasīla) or Uposathasīla
   which they are advised to observe from time to time on the days of full moon, new
   moon (pannarasi) and waxing and waning half-moon (atthami).⁵
2. 2. There  are  moral precepts  laid  down for male  and female  novices  called
   anupasampanna-sīla consists of ten such rules and thus it is sometimes called
   the ten precepts (dasasīla).⁶
3. There are moral precepts laid down for bhikkhus called bhikkhu-sīla. This category
   of sīla refers to two hundred and twenty-seven such rules.
4. There are moral precepts laid down for bhikkhunis called bhikkhuni-sīla. This
   category of sīla refers to three hundred and eleven such rules.

Each of these four categories of sīla is required as the preliminary virtue of one who wants to tread the path of purity. They are distinguished into four categories in order to suit the nature of the followers of the Noble Path. If the followers of the path is a bhikkhu, he is required to fulfill bhikkhusīla, or the moral precepts laid down for bhikkhus; if the follower is a bhikkhuni, a novice or a layman, he or she is required to comply with the precepts particularly laid down for him or her. No one can step up to practice meditation (samādhi) or insight knowledge (paññā) successfully without fulfilling the preliminary step of sīla. When this step is accomplished, the three constituents of the Noble Eightfold Path: right speech, right action and right livelihood are regarded having been perfected. Thus, sīla or precept is the primary virtue of one treading the Path of Enlightenment.

² Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) tr. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Colombo. 1975,   p. 7.

³ Ibid.

⁴ DN.III. p. 235; AN. III. p.203, 275; Vbh. p.285.

Buddhaghosa, The path of purification (Visuddhimagga) Tr. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Colombo, 1975) p. 7. ⁶Khu. I. p. 1.

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According to Nāgasena, sīla is the support upon which all good qualities, viz. controlling faculties and their powers (indrivabalas), limbs of enlightenment (bojjhangas) – paths (to Nirvana, application of mindfulness (satipatthana), right efforts (sammappadhanas), bases of psychic powers (iddhipadas), meditation (jhāna), deliverance (vimokkha), concentration (samādhi) and attainment (samapatti) depend.⁷ He points out that sīla is of four kinds, viz., Patimokkha samvarasīla (the fundamental moral code), Indriyasamvarasīla (morality pertaining to self-restraint), Ajivaparisuddhasīla (morality pertaining to purity of livelihood) and paccayasannissitasīla (morality pertaining to the use of the necessaries of live). These are collectively called sīla-visuddhi (purity of virtue). By following and observing the rules of morality, one reaps a rich harvest and progresses to his desired path. It has also been interpreted in relation to the ideals of purification and restraint, as they realized with the body, the speech and the mind.⁸

In all the scheme of Buddhist training, therefore, we find that training in sīla is an essential preliminary to further progress. Therefore, the disciple should first have completely perfected this preliminary training in sīla.

As above mentioned, sīla has its own scope and limitation only upon the physical and verbal. Its field is limited to the various types of physical and vocal actions. According to the Atthasalīni, the commentary on the Dhammasangāni, there are three physical immoral actions and three moral ones: killing, stealing and committing immoral sexual action are the three immoral actions, and refraining from killing, refraining from stealing and refraining from committing immoral sexual action are the three moral actions. Similarly, there are four vocal immoral actions and four vocal moral actions. Lying, slander, uttering harsh words and talking nonsense are the four immoral vocal actions. Refraining from lying refraining from slandering, refraining from uttering harsh words and refraining from talking nonsense are the four vocal moral actions. There are a number of other activities both physical and vocal connected with moral actions enumerated above. The function of ethics is to present a clear and detailed analysis of the same in a scientific manner. Thus, it may be said that Buddhist ethics is limited to the examination of the various types of physical and vocal activities from moral and immoral standpoint.

The Criteria of Good and Bad Action

Buddhism is a kirivavada system, a religion promulgating belief in the consequences of action. The doctrine of ethics or sīla is its fundamental principle and Nirvana is its ultimate goal of holy life. The Buddha teaches that all things are causally connected to one another and that they are dependent in origination and hence impermanent, subject to decay and destruction.⁹ With regard to the life of beings, he points out that this life process which has come into existence in such manner and which is full of suffering, has to be completely ended if suffering in life is to be ended; and this could be done only by destroying the root cause of samsāra which is called craving (tanha); and craving can be destroyed only by developing insight based on

⁷ The Milindpanha, ed. V. Trenckner, PTS., London, 1962, p. 33.

⁸ DN. I. p. 63.

⁹ MN. II. p. 32; SN. II. pp. 28, 70.

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the ethical practice into the true nature of things; and insight into the true nature of things could be developed only in a concentrated mind, and concentration of mind is possible only by overcoming all prejudices of the mind by the practice of discipline or virtue. Disciplining of the mind is connected with social life which involves a conduct motive by service of humanity. Therefore, according to Buddhist Ethical point of view good is that which is good for all, and that is good for all is that which is good for one.

In Buddhism, actions of man are threefold: bodily action (kayakarma), vocal action (vacikarma) and mental action (manokarma).1⁰ It is this threefold action of man that causes him to wander in samsāra; and good actions are those that contribute to make life pleasant and happy here (ditthadhammasukha) as well as benefit in the world to come (samprayahita) culminating in the realization of the truth or Nibbāna; and all actions that go against these are bad. This implies that a good cause always leads to a good consequence and a bad cause produces a bad result. This principle is always true, regardless of time and space. This indicates those wishing to attain happiness in a future life should prepare for it here and now. He has to avoid unwholesome actions which lead to an unhappy birth and perform only those wholesome actions which produce pleasurable consequences.

With regard to the terms used to denote good and bad, the most extensively used terms are kusala and akusala.1¹ The word kusala is sued in the sense of ‘skill’, ‘clever’, ‘efficient’ and ‘expert’, and akusala to means their opposites.¹² The Dhammasangāni defines this term as ‘It is called kusala in the sense that it drives away evil.¹³ The selection of these two terms to denote good and bad in Buddhism is very significant. Doing evil is very easy and could be done without effort. It could be called the natural tendency. In this way, attachment and hatred come to a person without effort and ignorance is inherent in everyone. To overcome attachment, to fell friendly and to look at things in an unprejudiced way is quite difficult and has to be done with some effort. Therefore, it is quite significant that all actions that contribute to weaken craving, hatred and ignorance are termed kusala and their opposite as akusala.

Two other terms used to denote good and bad are puñña and papa.1⁴ These are often translated as merit and sin. The commentator Dhammapala defines puñña as ‘that which purifies and fills the mind.¹⁵ According to the Pāli-English Dictionary it is recorded that ‘puñña’ is always represented as the foundation and condition of heavenly rebirth and a future blissful state, the enjoyment and duration of which depends on the amount of merit accumulated in a former existence.¹⁶ In this sense papa could be rendered ‘the foundation and condition of suffering in woeful states’. These two terms in their usage in the Pāli canon seem to be concerned mainly with the idea of karma which are known as the psychological force that determines the future state of a being, according to the good and bad he does. Thus in the Mahamangala Sutta the Buddha says that the fact of having a store of accumulated good karma is an auspicious thing for a person.¹⁷

¹⁰ MN. I. p. 373; SN. Vs. 232.

¹¹ DN. II. P. 157; MN. I. P. 489; SN. V. P. 91.
¹²PED. P. 51.

¹³ VVA. P. 169; Athas. P. 39.

¹⁴ DN. III. P. 119; SN. I. P. 114, II. P. 82; AN. I.P. 154.

¹⁵ VVA. P. 19.

¹⁶ PED. P. 86.

¹⁷ Sn. vs. 260.

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The problem now arises; by what criterion is action to be judged as good or bad? To this question, we find answer in the Sangīti Sutta where there is a mention of three standards which are collectively called Supremacy (adhipateyya). They are: (1) the supremacy of the Self (attadhipateya), (2) the supremacy of the world (lokadhipateyya) and (3) the supremacy of Righteousness (dhammadhipateyya).1⁸ These three types of supremacy generally refer to the motive in performing action, but they can also be applied to the manner of making a judgment regarding ethical values of actions:

1. Attadhipateyya means the Supremacy of the Self. It means the standard of moral
   judgment colored by one’s own interests before every thing else. In other words, it
   is a judgment particularly based on one’s personal motive or point of view. Since
   personal motive and sentiment dominates the whole sphere of this criterion of
   moral action, the deed which one has done has an equal chance of turning out good
   or bad.  An action is accounted as good or right only when it is in accord with
   the universal principle of righteousness.    However, a person who bases his
   judgment solely on his personal point of view may regard an action as good or
   right even when it is in conflict with such a principle. This apparently is the defect
   of the criterion of moral action called the supremacy or the self.¹⁹ For this
   Buddhism does not regard this standard for passing moral judgment as proper or
   dependable owing to the defect inherent in its nature.
2. Lokadhipateyya means the Supremacy of the World.   The World here means
   other people or the social community which is contrary to the ‘Self’ or the
   individual.  The supremacy of the world means the standard by which other’s
   points of view are taken into consideration before making a judgment.  Here
   social norms dominate the whole sphere of a persons.   According to this,
   the accepted norms or traditions of society have upper hand in passing moral
   judgment in any action.    Since this standard is principally based on social
   norms,  an action following them is more likely to be  in accord with
   the universal principle of righteousness.    Still it cannot be regarded as
   the universal standard, since what is accepted as good and right by one society
   may not be so for another community.    Moreover, not all accepted social
   practices are in accord with the law of righteousness.   Buddhism, however,
   approves of supremacy of the World as a criterion for moral action to
   the extent that the principle of righteousness is not violated.²⁰
3. Dhammadhipateyya means the supremacy of Righteousness. It is the most important
   of all the standards of judgment distinguished in the Pāli Tipitaka. This principle is
   based on reason and decency, and thus it is fully approved by Buddhism. Doing
   good, according to this principle, is particularly for the sake of good.²¹ A person is
   guided by the supremacy of righteousness and performs good action because the
   realization is: it is good to do good. Moreover, in performing such actions he cares
   little for praise or blame, because his principal motive is purely moral.

¹⁸ DN. III. P. 220; AN. I. P. 147.; Editor’s footnote: Maurice Walshe translates the passage as the three
predominant influences, being: oneself, the world, and the Dhamma.  See: Maurice Walshe [trns]: The Long
Discourses of the Buddha – A Translation of the Digha-Nikaya (Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 1995) p.
486

¹⁹ Ibid. P. 220.

²⁰ Ibid., p. 220.

²¹ Ibid., p.220.

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Now, a further problem may be raised: how do we know what type of action is good and what type is bad, or, what is the universal standard for determining that such and such action is good or fight and such and such is bad? To these questions, the answers can be seen in the Ahguttara-Nikaya. It is said in the text that when the Buddha arrived in the village of Kesaputta of the Kosala kingdom, the Kalama people came to visit him and informed him of their doubts and suspicions regarding many religious teachers who came and preached their doctrines in the village. They said that every teacher asserted his own doctrine to be good, proper and worthy of acceptance while he denouncing the views or teachings of others. All or them who visited the village did the same, ad a result of which the villages were thrown into doubt and confusion as to whose teachings they should regard as correct. Having listened to their complaints, the Buddha he says:

“It is so, Kalamas, you are quite justified to have such doubt. Your doubt has arisen in circumstances really deserving of it. Now look you, Kalamas. Do not accept any thing merely because it is a popular report; merely because it is traditionally handed down; merely because it is an exiting wonder; merely because it is textually referable; merely because it is a probable conjecture; merely because it is theoretically a logical conclusion; merely because it is seemingly a sensible inference; merely because it is agreeably consistent with one’s own doctrine; merely because the speaker is trustworthy; merely because the speaker is one’s own teacher. Whenever you know for yourselves that these things are evil, these things are harmful, these things are censured by the wise, these things, if performed in full, conduce to unprofitable consequences, to suffering, then you do abandon them. Whenever you know for yourselves that these things are merit, these things are harmless, these things are praised by the wise, these things if performed in full, conduce to benefit, to happiness, then you do keep on fulfilling them.”²²

According to the above-passage, two main attitudes of the Buddha towards accepting any view or doctrine have been shown as follows:

1. One is to avoid every view or doctrine propagated by other people without
   rational examinations.   This is apparently intended to void blind faith or uncritical
   acceptance of such doctrines.
2. Other is urged to exercise his own power of reasoning in full in
   considering and making a judgment regarding what he has been told.²³

In this way the Buddha, being fully aware that reasoning may differ from one individual to another, accordingly proposed the formula or argument which everyone can employ to arrive at the proper and correct judgment by himself. Such a formula or argument can be applied, not only to evaluate other’s views or doctrines, but it can be used as a standard argument for proving good and bad actions as well.

It has previously been pointed out that an action inspired by evil thoughts results in evil consequences and an action inspired by wholesome though results in

²² AN. I. PP. 189, 190.

²³ Sunthorn Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concept of Karma and Rebirth, (Bangkok: Mahamakut Rajavidyalaya
Press, 1976), p. 213.

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wholesome consequences. Hence, in this context an action motivated by a thought of either last (lōbha), hatred (dosa) or ignorance (moha) is always bad (akusala) as the Buddha says:

When a man’s deed, O Monks, is performed under the influence of lust (lōbha)…under the influence of hatred (dosa)…under the influence of ignorance (moha), born of moha, caused by moha, originated by moha, it is demeritorious (akusala), unprofitable it has suffering for its result, it conduces to the arising of further actions not to the ceasing of actions.²⁴

From this, it can be said that a good action must always be in accordance with the principle of righteousness, conditioned by alōbha, adosa and amoha. Thus, the good action and bad action may be defined as :

1. An Action, in order to be righteous, must be meritorious;
2. Such a meritorious action must not be harmful either to the doer himself
   or to the rest;
   1. Such an action is praised and approved by the wise;
   2. Such an action, if performed in full, conduces to benefit and happiness to
      both the doer and the rest.²⁵

Any action performed in accordance with these four principles is considered as the good action and that which is contrary to them is regarded as the bad action.

The Buddhist Formulation of Education

The basic principles of Buddhist education are based on the three fold of training cause as mentioned; sīla, samādhi and paññā. Buddhism does propagation of the principles of education as pariyatti, patipatti and pativetha that form basis of the various schools of Buddhist education. Pariyatti and Patipatti are considered as the foundations of education because they are steps leading to deliverance. They may be explained as :

1. Pariyatti means the true doctrine of study.²⁶ In the Buddhism, education begins with the study of Discipline (vinaya) and Doctrine (Dhamma) for the destruction of sufferings. Buddha ordained Annakondanna at Isipatana and said: ‘come then, Brother, well taught is the Dhamma. Live the holy life for the utter destruction of woe’²⁷ Destruction, discarding and eradication of woe are the goal of education in Buddhism. Every disciple who wants to overcome all defilements or to get deliverance has to study the discipline and doctrine that is, a man can follow the path only if he knows the path clearly and he can know the path by study only. With this the formation of Sangha and system of monastic order started. The relationship between the teacher and his pupils within the monastery becomes the educational system because all new

AN. I. P. 203; MN. I. PP. 487; DN. III. P. 214; Dhs. p. 32, 313; Iti. p. Sunthorn Na- Rangsi., op.cit., p. 126.

Prayuddha Payutto, Dictionary of Buddhism, Bangkok, 1985, p. 125. VIN. (Mahavagga) p. 15.

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comers have to pass first five years under the spiritual preceptor or teacher’s care until they are properly trained in the Discipline and the Doctrine. This system is called Nissaya. In this way, the relations between preceptor and pupil are like that of a father and a son, based on confidence and love. The subject matters of study were the Buddhist legends and moral fables. The curriculum of the monks included what were termed as Suttanta, Dhamma and Vinaya, together with Suttas and Sutta-vibhanga. This system of education was established in the monasteries automatically because of relation between preceptor and pupils. The teacher means spiritual preceptor took sometime his class in the open air informally or he, sometime, stood under the tree and taught his pupils. The relations between teacher and pupil are also governed by the Vinaya. The newly ordained monks have to undergo an arduous ethical training under the supervision of some elder and able monk. Therefore, Vinaya or disciplines are the orders of Sangha that have to be preached by all.

In this way, Buddhist education is appreciated because it leads to Nibbāna. Thus, the three-fold path: morality, meditation and wisdom form the basis of educational system of Buddhism. Nibbāna can be attained by practice in accordance with the three-fold path only.

2. Patipatti means practice, training, cultivating oneself in the path that purifies himself. These sayings, according to Buddha, explain the function and the purpose of cultivating virtue, meditation and wisdom for the cessation of the three root causes of evil: lust, hatred and delusion.²⁸ These root causes are eliminated through following, practicing or training in virtue, meditation and wisdom that are called the path. Without the path, one can not purify himself. The Buddhist monk giving up worldly pleasures endeavors to lead a life of voluntary poverty and completes celibacy to attain the higher aim. He has to practice his function within the bounds of a monk’s life to attain deliverance of mind. In Buddhism, there are two ways to leading to life of a monk: one entails continuous meditation, this is called ‘Vipassana Dhura’ and the other is studying and teaching the Dhamma that is called ‘Gantha Dhura‘. Between these two, it is obligatory on every monk to take up one of these ways in accordance with his temperament, environment and intention. Vipassana Dhura is regarded as the intense process of cleansing one’s speech, action and thought. Buddha warns against bookish learning of a monk as:

‘Though he recites the sacred texts a lot, but acts not accordingly that heedless man is like a cowherd counting other’s cattle and not obtaining the products of the cow. He shares not the fruits of the tranquil man.²⁹

This clearly indicates that even if a person becomes expert academically after learning by heart much from the texts, but he has yet to practice of what has been heart and learnt by him by means of following the right path. He remains only a learner until he completes the whole process.³⁰ The Buddha does not praise an academic intellectual development as important because it cannot rid a man from the cycle of birth-and death. Buddha has always put emphasis on the practice of eight-fold path and living up to the

^s Khu. II, p. 149. ‘ DN. P. p. 19. ‘ MN. I, p. 144.

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high ideals. As he says:

Though he recites only a little of the sacred texts, but acts in accordance with the teaching, abandoning lust, hate and delusion, possessed of right understanding, his mind entirely released and clinging to nothing here or hereafter, he shares the fruits of the tranquil man^’.³¹

These sayings indicate that the Buddhist way of life does not depend on mere academic and intellectual development but on practical teaching because later can lead to enlightenment. Method of grasping the highest truth is the awakening from ignorance with full knowledge and practice of virtue, concentration and wisdom. Each is a way to an end and none of them is an end in itself. These three go together supporting each other. Virtue or regulated behavior strengthens meditation and meditation in turn promotes wisdom. Wisdom helps one to get rid of the clouded view of things to see life as it really is that is to see life and all things pertaining to life as arising and passing away.³² Virtue, concentration and wisdom are related to each other and they can not be separated.

3. Pativedha means the true doctrine of penetration or realizable aspect of the true doctrine.³³ It is the practical result for mental development until one purifies his mind, gets right understanding with clinging to nothing and sees all things as impermanent, unsatisfactory and without self. As the Buddha says: ‘All conditioned things are impermanent; All conditioned things are dukkha, unsatisfactory; All dhamma are without a self, a soul’. With the consideration of the five aggregates – one sees them clearly as they really are, one’s mind is uplifted at the stage of right understanding known as Insight (Vipassana) and he continues to develop his Insight-meditation, until one day, he gets insight into the true nature of himself and he attains partial experience of Nibbāna by attaining the first stage of realization. The achievement breaks the three fetters: (1) self-illusion, (2) doubt (vicikiccha), and (3) indulgence in rites, rituals and ceremonies (sīlabbata paramasa).³⁴ When he breaks the three fetters, he becomes a stream-enterer (sotapanna). His defilement is not fully burnt, after he dies he will be reborn seven times at most but never below the human being. He could live a life of high morals and then he continues to develop his ‘Insight-meditation’ and weakens to two more fetters: (4) sense desire (kama raga) and (5) ill-will (Vyavada).³⁵He attains the second stage of realization with a clearer vision of Nibbāna. He becomes a Sakadagami (a once-Returner) who will be reborn on earth only one time, if he fails to attain Arahantship.

One breaks the weakened fetters of sense desire (kama-Raga) and ill-will (Vyavada) and he attains the third stage of realization of Nibbāna with a clear vision. He is called Anagami (a non-Returner) because of sensuality rooted out and as such, he cannot be reborn in the realm of sense pleasures including the human world. He is born in the Brahma worlds.³⁶

¹ DN.P., p. 20.

² Piyadassi The Buddhis Path, London; Riders company, 1964, p. 80.

³ Dhp., p. 277.

⁴ DN. (Sangiti Sutta), p. 33.
DN. p. 33.

SN. V, p. 61.

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After that, one attains the final stage of realization by his clear insight and he becomes Arahant (the Perfect one). He breaks the remaining five fetters: (6) lust for form (Rupa Raga), (7) and for the formless (Aruparaga), (8) conceit (Mana), (9) restlessness (Uddhacca) and (10) ignorance (Avijja). One who breaks these ten fetters holds nothing in the world for himself. He attains the height of Nibbāna. This is the educational process in Buddhism.

Conclusion:

According to Buddhism Nibbāna is considered as the highest goal of ethical life. With a view to enabling man to secure the supreme end of life, Buddhism draws attention to the unsatisfactory nature of mundane existence and exhorts people to seek deliverance from it. It is for the sake of attaining the highest end that ethical codes of conduct and behavior are laid down by the Buddha. Ethics is considered as in indispensable means for the consummation of the holy life because truth and value are attributes of reality. Both these elements of truth and value are joined in the concept of Nibbāna, which has been central concept in the Buddhist ethics and education. Therefore, Buddhist theory of knowledge is a way to pave the path for the spiritual development of man. The aim and purpose of education according to Buddhist is to bring about a perfect and integrated development of human personality.

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Ahguttara-Nikaya, PTS, London: Vols. I & II, Ed. R. Morris 1961, 1955; Vols. III, IV & V Ed. E. Hardy, 1958.

Barua, B., A History of Pre-Buddhist Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 1970. Bavaj, P.V., 2500 Years of Buddhism, New Delhi: Government of India, 1976.

Buddhist Legends, tr. E.W. Burlingame, Harvard Oriental Series, Vols. 28, 29 & 30, for PTS, London 1969.

Das Gupta, S.N., History of Indian Philosophy, London: Cambridge University Press, 1922.

Dhammapāda, Ed. Suriyagoda Sumangala, PTS, London, 1914. Dhammasangāni Atthakatha (Atthasalīni) Ed., E. Muller, PTS, London, 1897; Dhammasangāni, Ed. J. Kashyap, Devanagari Series, Nalanda, 1960.

Dialogues of the Buddha, SBB, for PTS, London: Part I. tr. T.W. Rhys Davids, Parts II & III, tr. T.W. & C.A.F. Rhys Davids 1956, 1959, 1965.

Digha Nikāya, PTS, London: Vols. I & II, Ed. T.W. Rhys Davids & J. Estlin Carpenter 1949, 1947; Vols. III. Ed. J. Estlin Carpenter 1960.

Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, by J. Hastings, Edinburgh, Vol. 5, 1908-1926. Itivuttaka, Ed. E. Windish, PTS, London, 1948.

Jayasuriya, W.F., Psychology and Philosophy of Buddhism, Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1976.

Kalupahana, David, J., Buddhist Philosophy, Honolulu: The University of Hawaii, 1976.

Lal, Mani Joshi, Studies in the Buddhist Culture of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,

1977.

Majjhima Nikāya, PTS, London: Vol. I. Ed. V. Trenckner 1964; Vols. II & III., Ed. R. Chalmers 1960.

Milinda’s Questions, Tr. I.B. Horner, SBB, for PTS, London: Vol. I, 1963; Vol. II, 1964. Nanaponika, Anattā and Nibbāna, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971. Narada, The Buddha and His Teachings, Colombo: Messes. Apothecaries’ Co. 1973. Pāli-English Dictionary, London, PTS, 1959. Pande, G.C., Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1974.

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Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Path, London: Rider & Company, 1964. Prayaddha Payatto, Dictionary of Buddhism, Bangkok, 1985. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist Manual Psychological Ethics, London: PTS, 1974. Saddhatissa, H., Buddhist Ethics, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1970. Samyutta-Nikaya, 5 Vols. Ed. M. LeonFeer, PTS, London 1960.

Siddhi Butr-indr, The Social Philosophy of Buddhism, Bangkok: Mahamakut Buddhist University, 1973.

Sujib Punyanubhab, Some Prominent Characteristics of Buddhism, Bangkok: Mahamakut Buddhist University, 1965.

Sunthorn Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth, Bangkok: Mahamakutarajavidyalaya Press, 1976.

Sutta Nipata, Ed, Lord Chalmers. Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. 37, CM Harvard University Press, 1932.

The Book of the Gradual Sayings, PTS, London : Vols. I, II & V, tr. F.L. Woodward 1960, 1952, 1955; Vols. III & IV, tr. E.M. Hare 1952, 1955.

The Book of the Kindred Sayings, PTS, London: Vols. I & II, tr. C.A.F. Rhys Davids 1950, 1952; Vols. III, IV & V, tr. F.L. Woodward 1954, 1956.

The Expositor (Atthasalīni), Buddhaghosa, Vol. I. Tr. PemaungtinEd., Mrs. Rhys Davids, PTS, Lusac and Company Ltd. London, 1958.

The Middle Length Sayings, tr. I.B. Horner, PTS, London: Vol. I. 1954: Vol. II, 1957.

Vajirananavarorasa, H.R.H.Prince, Pañcasīla Pancadhamma, Bangkok: Mahamakut Buddhist University, 1963.

Vibhanga, Ed. C.A.F. Rhys Davids, PTS, London 1940.

Weeraratne, W.G., Individual and Society in Buddhism, Colombo: Metro Printers Ltd.,

1977.

Wijesekera, O.H.de. A., Buddhist Ethics, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1963.

Nalanda Education: the Basis of Buddhist Ethics

Dr. Ravindra Panth

Vice – Chancellor, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda Deemed University)

Dhamma or Dharma is the ultimate foundation for the Buddhist ethics. The term Dhamma is a multi-significant term but the study of Pāli literature reveals two main meanings of the word Dharma which has been preserved throughout the ages.

Firstly it means to ‘sustain’ which is its general meaning and derived from the root/Dhr (dhareti) and the other meaning is more specific meaning based on the realization which refers to ‘nature’ or ‘characteristic’. Thus, the underlying meaning refers to ‘universal law’ which sustains and governs both the physical and moral order of the universe. Dharma can best be translated as ‘law of nature’, a term that captures both its main sense namely as the principle of order and regularity seen in the behavior of natural phenomena and also the idea of universal moral law whose requirements have been revealed by the enlightened beings such as the Buddha. It is a given fact that every aspect of our life is regulated by Dharma, seasons to the movements of the planets, day and night are all in succession because of Dharma.

In his 1^st sermon, the Buddha was said to have turned the wheel of Dharma and given the doctrinal expressed to the truth about how things are in reality. It was in this discourse that the Buddha set out the four noble truths and the eight fold paths, which can be summed up in three categories – Sīla, Samādhi, and Paññā.

Dharma may be defined as the laws of nature or nature of laws which, when realized through insight, lead one gradually towards the goal of full liberation. Some can say Dharma has these essential ingredients:

The focal point is laws of nature or nature of laws, cutting across all sectarianism. These laws, or their nature, have to be realized through insight at the experiential level, thereby saving Dharma from being degraded into a mere intellectual game. One should have the feeling of being led on to the final goal of full liberation, which will make one persevere on the path of Dharma.

Dharma is thus an exposition of the laws pertaining to our inner and outer world, just as science deals with the laws pertaining to the outer world. The difference between science and Dharma is thus only a difference in the realm of enquiry – as there are differences between the various “departments” of science, such as physics, chemistry and botany. Yet there is a perception of irreconcilability between science and Dharma.

The distinctive feature of Dharma is that it should be capable of being realized at the experiential level through insight and applied in daily life. Unless Dharma becomes applicable in daily life, it will be like a flower that is lovely and beautiful to look at, but does not emit any fragrance.

With the proper application of Dharma in daily life, one is bound to get amazing results.  When this starts happening, one begins to realize sooner rather than

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later that applied Dharma is nothing but an art of living, as it keeps one happy and contented in all situations.

Although Dharma is universal and nothing to do with sectarianism, the misconception that these are one and the same has prevailed in India for a long time. Even in the Buddha’s time there were people who would use such terms as “my dharma” and “another’s dharma”. They called their own dharma perfect and the other’s dharma imperfect. Thus contending, the quarrel with each other. They consider their own depositions to be true. To guard people against such statements, the Buddha gave a clear and succinct message to the Kalamas, who also felt perturbed by similar talk on certain occasions:

“Now look, you Kalamas. Be not misled by report, tradition, or hearsay. Be not misled by proficiency in any scripture, or by reasoning or logic or reflection on and approval of some theory, or because some view conforms with one’s own inclinations, or out of respect for the prestige of a teacher. However, when you know for yourselves: these things are unwholesome, these things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the wise; these things when practiced and observed conduce to loss and sorrow-then do ye reject them. But if at any time you know for yourselves: These things are wholesome, these things are praised by the intelligent; these things, when practiced and observed, conduce to welfare and happiness, then Kalamas, do ye, having practiced them, abide.”

Thus, the accent in this message was on realizing for oneself for the sake of one’s welfare. Such realization comes through the practice of Dharma and realizing by experience, through deep introspection through the technique of the practice of morality (sīla), mastery over the mind (samādhi) and insight (paññā).

Nearly two centuries after the passing away of the Buddha, the Emperor Asoka practiced and propagated the Dhamma for the spiritual development of his people, with remarkable success. This earned him great fame in the annals of the world. H.G. Wells, the renowned historian of modern times, pays glowing tribute to him in the following words:

‘Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and gracious nesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star.’

Emperor Asoka explains in one of his edicts how he could achieve amazing success while his predecessors could not. According to him, in olden times other rulers also wanted their subjects to progress by the adequate promotion of Dhamma. He himself was filled with a similar desire, and to achieve this goal he undertook various measures. He provided several types of amenities to the public, as his predecessors had, but doing this proved of no avail. Then he exhorted people to follow certain dhamma practices, so that they might develop compassion, charity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness. For this purpose he adopted two means: the issue of dhamma proclamations and the practice of deep introspection (nijhati).

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It was this Dhamma which is the ultimate foundation of the Buddhist ethics that was the main underline principle of the Nalanda Mahavihara. Unlike in the present day the secular society dictates that institutional education should only focus in preparing students mainly for their career. As a result the major cause of our educational problems lies in this commercialization of our education. In today’s turbulent world, however, eagerness to learn is often stifled, defamed by the moral twists that afflict the wider society. Such a conception of the aim of education is quite different from that of consistent Nalanda principles. Practical efficiency certainly has its place in Buddhist education, for Buddhism propounds a middle path which recognizes that our loftiest spiritual aspirations require a healthy body and materially secure society. However, for Buddhism the practical side of education must be integrated with other requirements designed to bring the potentialities of human nature to maturity in the way envisioned by Lord Buddha. Most importantly, an education policy guided by Buddhist principles must aim to instill values as much as to impart information. It must be directed, not merely towards developing social and commercial skills, but towards nurturing in the students the seeds of spiritual nobility.

Buddhist education is concerned above all with the transformation of character. Since a person’s character is mold by values, and values are conveyed by inspiring ideals, therefore, the first task is to determine the ideals of educational system. If we turn to the Buddha’s discourse in search of the ideals proper to a Buddhist life, we find five qualities that the Buddha often held as the hallmarks of the model disciple, whether monk or layperson. These five qualities are faith, virtue, generosity, learning, and wisdom. Of the five, faith and generosity, these two relate primarily to the heart. They are concerned with taming the emotional side of human nature. Two relate to the intellect that are learning and wisdom. The fifth, virtue or morality, partakes of both sides of the personality: the first three precepts ~ abstinence from killing, stealing, and sexual abuse ~ govern the emotions; the precepts of abstinence from falsehood and intoxicants help to develop the clarity and honesty necessary for realization of truth. Thus Buddhist education aims at a parallel transformation of human character and intelligence, holding both in balance and ensuring both are brought to fulfillment. Based on the principles of the teachings of the Buddha, ‘making of man’ was the main theme of education in the ancient Nalanda Mahavihara and still continues to be at the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara.

The Nalanda University was undoubtedly a great centre for the study of Buddhism. Although all the available texts of the eighteen Theravāda sects were thoroughly studied here, yet Nalanda was famous especially for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. However, later on Esoteric Buddhism developed and came up as an offshoot of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which was studied here – in theory and practice. Tantric Buddhism was the name given to this Esoteric Buddhism, which was otherwise called Tantrayana Buddhism. Vajrayana, Kalacakrayana, and the like had been its latter developments – whatever might be the name that does not matter. The fact was that Buddhism in general was taught and practiced at Nalanda Mahavihara following the age-old Buddhist concept of Pariyatti (theory), Patipatti (practice) and Pativedana (experience) thereby, acquiring knowledge both mundane and supra-mundane.

The gigantic teachers of Nalanda, of unfathomable knowledge and a peaceful, serene environment attracted the student-scholars from the distant places like China,

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Korea, Tibet, Mongolia and Southeast Asian countries. This was the only center where all the branches of the Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist logic and metaphysics were taught from their grass-root level. Student-scholars came to Nalanda and if they were admitted going through severe tests of knowledge, they learnt Sastra-texts written in Sanskrit thoroughly and translated them in their own mother language and propagated the same in their own countries. In this way Buddhism was disseminated throughout Asian countries. For this dissemination, credit goes undoubtedly to the renowned Pandits of the Nalanda Mahavihara.

It is indeed true to state that an institution is known because of its faculty, its staff and students. The personality of teacher plays a great role in the development of the character and culturing the outlook of the student which in totality leads to the development and rise of institution. In this Nalanda made a great contribution to the arena of education, art and culture by creating an environment of enthusiasm for the pursuit of both intellectual and spiritual endeavors. A good number of eminent teachers of the Nalanda Mahavihara dedicated their life for the dissemination of Buddhism in India and abroad through the medium of studying, teaching and translating the Buddhist Sastras.

To conclude we may say that there is an urgent need today for a reassessment of the role of education in this rapidly changing world. The ideal of value education that many educators have begun to talk about today was achieved in Nalanda through the practice of the universal teachings of the Buddhist ethics. Character development should become a conscious process wherein students become aware of the complexities of their minds and how instincts, desires, emotions, will, thought and imagination relate, can be understood and harmonize. The ideal of all education, all training, should be to encourage students to explore and discover their immense potential, to nurture ethical citizens with the idea in mind that development of the individual will lead to development of the whole, whether it be family, community, state, nation or world.

Bhavatu sabba mangalam May all beings be happy

Buddhist Ethics and Education: A Postmodern Model

Prof. Kirti Bunchua¹

Director of Ph.D. Program in Philosophy and Ethics

Suan Sunanda University

Introduction:

When I say, “Buddhism is the Religion of Analysis”², I do not mean that Buddhism is an Analytic Philosophy in the Western sense, but mean only that in teaching and educating, the Buddhists have the strong tendency to prepare the teaching by the high technique of analysis, starting from the delicate analysis of numerous virtues in the Suttanta-pitaka or the ethical manual for study, and the presentation of the detailed categorization of the metaphysical reality in Abhidhamma-pitaka, or the metaphysical manual for study. Both manuals are comparable to the Books of Sentences of the Medieval Europe in the spirit and intention to prepare the materials for the study and education, not as the articles of faith to be memorized and professed. In the process of study and education, the materials provided must be analyzed and propounded, interpreted and discussed before being concluded for the practice. From this consideration, we can conclude that the analytic method of preparing the materials for the study, as found in the Suttanta-pitaka and the Medieval Books of Sentences does not say anything of the school of thought until utilizing the interpretation approach -which is not just a study, but real education. We can conclude at this stage that the real Buddhist Ethics is put into education only when a philosophical approach is applied to interpret the Suttanta-pitaka. However, one is not free to choose any philosophy to direct him to interpret the Suttanta-pitaka because in the Suttanta-pitaka itself you find provisions you cannot escape unless you allow yourself to be inconsistent. That hermeneutics provided by the Suttanta-pitaka to interpret its own material is the so-called Kalamasutta-kahkhaniytthana, as follows:

• Be not led by report.
• Be not led by tradition.
• Be not led by hearsay.
• Be not led by the authority of texts.
• Be not led by mere logic.
• Be not led by inference.
• Be not led by considering appearances.
• Be not led by the agreement with a considered and approved theory.

¹ Additionally, Dr. Bunchua lectures at Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University and Mahamakutarajavidyalaya University – both major monastic universities in Thailand, currently near each other in Bangkok – although both schools have built new campuses far from one another. Kirti Bunchua, Contextual Religions (Bangkok : Assumption University Press, 1994), p.5.

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• Be not led by seeming possibilities.
• Be not led by the idea, ‘This is our teacher’.

If this Sutta is accepted, as the official direction of hermeneutics for the interpretation of all the Buddhist Scripture, as it should be, we can without doubt conclude that it must be the official guideline for the Buddhist education from the Buddhist ethics, that is, from Suttanta-pitaka – the official source of ethics from Buddhism. This is confirmed by the opinion of one of the greatest scholars of Buddhism in Thailand, the late Ajahn Soosheep Pannanubhab:

Though the Tipitaka is the primary source of Buddhism, we must not stick however, too much to their letters, but should comply with the Kalama Sutta: ma Tipitakasampadanena – do not become attached to quoting Scriptures, because there may be deletions, additions and modifications. This proves that Buddhism teaches us to use our intelligence to scrutinize evidences until everything is clear to the mind. Buddhists are taught to be open-minded and to have full freedom of conscience. Moreover, this fact confirms the policy of Buddhism to be practical, putting it through tests until the evidence comes clear into one’s own mind.³

I try to apply this understanding to develop the philosophy of education for the Thai people in my Thai book Manual of Ethics Based on the Universal Principles (™oOTHfnfwi»™™minm?mna), still unpublished, in which I am going to expose some main points here..

Accepting the Kalama Sutta as our Philosophical Hermeneutics, we can analyze human capacity as it is into four aspects:

• Creative Capacity
• Adaptive Capacity
• Inquisitive Capacity
• Collaborative Capacity

If we agree as a fact that all humans aspire to happiness and only Authentic Happiness According to Reality (AHAR) can satisfy the human aspiration, the above-said quadruple capacity can appease the human aspiration as it gives the encouragement and offers the possibility to realize. It is one of the assumptions that are capable to support the realization of the Kalama Sutta, the realization of which may be also interpreted as the basic steps to realize the Buddhahood in each human.

Bringing students to this point, we can be sure that they would have strong-wills to develop their complex capacity to form a person of strong character, so they are ready to accept all the steps supported by the reasonable arguments in the hints of the Kalama Sutta. I can give here only some main points to be exposed to our good­will students.

Susheep Punnanubhab, Tipitaka for the People., 2522, p.24.

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The Authentic Happiness:

What is the Authentic Happiness? We can choose from all the possible kinds of happiness, thus:

• Happiness on the Suffering of others      =             is not
• Suffering for the Happiness of others     =             is not.
• Suffering for the Suffering of others        =             is not.
• Happiness on the Happiness of other     =             certainly is.

Seeking One’s Happiness on the Suffering of Others: This attitude is rather wide-spread nowadays. It is an egoistic attitude that sometimes declares frankly; “I want it, yield to me, if you don’t want more troubles”, sometimes cheating by insincere deeds or words, such as: “I come to develop your village, if you don’t sell me your lands, you will face retaliation from not collaborating with me.”

Seeking One’s Suffering on the Happiness of Others: With this attitude, some people sacrifice their own happiness or even accept suffering so that others may have happiness, e.g. a father willingly seeks getting into an accident in order to earn money for his children’s school-fees.

Seeking One’s Suffering on the Suffering of Others: It is the attitude of the envious: “If I don’t have it, others must not have it either; or I must have it more than anybody else, or otherwise, I must have it alone.” Some even labor hard, painstakingly, to inflict misfortunes upon the ones they hate. For examples, those who are AIDS-stricken victims use all their efforts to inflict AIDS to others; or those who missed job-positions use their efforts to inflict revenge on those who won them.

Seeking One’s Happiness on the Happiness of Others. Those who hold this attitude are wise and prudent. By analyzing and evaluating prudently, they come across wonderful ways of rendering the great happiness possible to others, and in so doing they gain more happiness for themselves. They are convinced that the more they promote happiness of others, the more happiness they enjoy; and vice-versa, the more they enjoy happiness, the greater desire they have to render more happiness to others.

The Creative Capacity:

Homo-sapiens have developed their Creative Capacity continuously, since their ‘inception’. We can roughly divide their development into four steps: in the past, with the present developing into the Adaptive Capacity as the fifth step. We shall call them the five paradigms of human thought. It is to be noted that in the world of paradigms, while a new one rises up, old ones do not cease, but go on side by side with the new one.

Primitive Paradigm: This paradigm occurred in the mind of the primitives as soon as humans appeared on Earth. It is as old as Humanity. We therefore assume, that this paradigm began to exert its role not less than 2,000,000 years ago and never dies away from the human mind.

The first humans who first lived on Earth, lived in pure Nature, at the mercy of Nature,  often threatened by  over-powering  natural  phenomena,   and  sometimes

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succumbed as victims of natural disasters. Animals, when danger is near, are pushed by the instinct of fear to flee or fight⁴ for life. Once the danger bringing fear is away, animals live unworried, because they don’t reflect. Humans are different. Though they have the fear-instinct like animals, and run for life in time of danger like animals, after several experiences of threatening dangers, however, reflections about past experiences came up sometimes during peaceful leisure time. They would have wished for safety for themselves and their families. For such a purpose, they put up such questions as: “Whence came the natural disasters?”, and how could they tried to find out the answers? There might have been many possible answers, but the ones that appeased the strains of those primitives were that natural disasters together with all natural events were the manipulations of mysterious powers. There are opinions about their natures and roles, but they are unanimously believed to exist and manipulate capriciously behind all natural happenings. They were called by different names by different groups of peoples.

From such a fundamental belief, primitives concluded that they could avoid the natural disasters only by complying with the will of the mysterious powers and could gain advantages over other creatures by pleasing them. These mysterious powers may be called by any names they agreed upon. They are the All-Highs above all visible. They try hard, and therefore, to know the will of the All-Highs is to know how to please them. Those who know these two techniques were considered knower’s or the seers among the primitives. They enjoy plenty of privileges. They were indeed benefactors of the primitives, because if no one could offer satisfactory answers to the fright-stricken primitives, they would have been too miserable, for they would have been in the status of unquenchable fear. Though physically they were still victims to disasters, at least psychologically they could be convinced that they were not destined to the doom of destruction, thinking that they could survive because they knew how to please the All-Highs, unlike all the victims who did not know how to please them.

Someone may ask why the primitives were easily satisfied with the above answer, and why they did not try to solve their problems through the understanding of the Laws of Nature. We can answer that because they did not believe in any law. They experienced the changing Nature and they saw the dissimilarities rather than the similarities, the changes rather than the laws. For them the Universe is a Chaos. This is their Pure Philosophy. Such a Pure Philosophy determines on them that the above answers are satisfactory. Under such satisfaction, a man hardly has interest to find the Laws of Nature – believed inexistent. He bestows, on the contrary, all his efforts to inquire what he is sure of the existence: how to know and how to please the will of the All-Highs. This form of thought was the only trend of human thinking for more than two million years. Surely, with such a paradigm, humanity can hardly make progress of knowledge, except the rare and unintentional inventions by chance. However, the creative capacity of Man could not help advancing to the more advanced form called the Ancient Paradigm about 3,000 years ago.

The highest ideal during all of this period is: “If the will of the All-Highs is not actually expressed, do according to the customs”, because the customs are the expressive wills of the All-Highs until further noticed by some believable technique.”

⁴ Editor’s Footnote: As taught in the American school system, the concept is “fight or flight” -therefore, ‘or fight’ was to the statement.

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You can violate anything except the customs” is the universally accepted criterion of conduct. Even the new will of the All-High is accepted on the basis of some custom.

Ancient Paradigm: The people of this paradigm believe that the World has its own law. It is the Cosmos, not the Chaos of the Primitives.

There might have been some geniuses before the Ancient time who believed that the World has its own law, but as they did not transmit their belief to others, so it disappeared at the time of their death without affecting any change. If they did transmit, but no one believed it, they would have been denounced crazy unbelievers and might have been put to death as cursed persons. They, therefore, who first found out the Cosmos and could safely convince others to their beliefs are indeed great geniuses. We don’t know who those men are of the humanity. The oldest document that shows this belief is the first page of the Bible. It is the written record of oral traditions among the Hebrew tribes even before Moses. It had been transmitted orally from generations to generations and was put into the written Bible just about 3,000 years ago. The Bible told us how God put an order into the Universe, thus changing the status of the Universe from Chaos (the Universe without Laws) to Cosmos (the Universe with Laws). Since then the Universe has evolved according to those given Laws⁵. Though God, as the Law-Giver, has the right to change any law at will, He would not have done it without necessity, because, generally, it is quite high prestigious to stress the importance of the Laws that He Himself has established it.

In the Greek historical record, Thales (640-545 B.C.) was hailed to be the first who thought that the World (meaning the Universe) is Cosmos. In the Indian culture, Buddha was the first to teach that the Universe and everything in it strictly follow the Laws of Dharma. In the Chinese culture, we find Confucius presenting Tao as the Laws of conduct for private as well as social life while Lao-Tzu presenting it as Natural Law.

Since Man has believed that the Universe has fixed Laws, he always tries with great interest to find them out. While the Western people had to pass through the phase of interest in the Law of Nature before having interest in the Law of the Spirit in the Middle Ages, the Eastern people jumped over the interest of the Law of Nature to grasp immediately the Law of the Spirit since the time of Buddha and began to have interest in the Law of Nature only when they came into contact with the Western Education just two centuries ago.

In other words, the pure philosophy of the First Paradigm is the belief that the Universe has its own law. Man must know it and use it as the basis for his happiness in this life. By this reason, the Greeks and the Romans constructed great palaces, great theaters, and great baths, but small temples. If they agreed to construct some great temples, it was for the sake of their own fame and pleasure rather than their future life: this last purpose belongs to the Third Paradigm starting in the Middle Ages.

During the Ancient Age, only the very progressive people had the Ancient Paradigm in their hearts. Many others still clung to the Primitive Paradigm, that is, they still believed in the mysterious powers that controlled Nature according to their paradigm: they both hoped and feared at the same time. If they used the facilities offered them by the inventions of the more progressive ones, they used them, then with the mentality of the Primitives, e.g. they might attend the dramas created by the Ancient

Editor’s footnote: Very similar between the Zoroastrian and Brahmanical-Buddhist concept of the battles between Asuras and Devas – concepts that may pre-date biblical stories – Adhamma versus Dhamma.

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writers to teach some Natural Laws, but the people of the Primitive Paradigm would attend it with the hope of a Magic Act to gain favor of the Mysterious Powers.

The Supreme Standard of Conduct for this paradigm is “To follow the Laws.” Kings have authority because they guarantee the peaceful coexistence. Their words are Laws, not because they express the will of God, but because they express the Kings’ will to guarantee the peaceful coexistence. By this token, you can transgress anything but Laws promulgated by the will of the Kings or the leaders of societies.

Medieval Paradigm: In Western culture, this paradigm started about 2,000 years ago, with the beginning of Christianity. In the East, it started at the beginning of the Buddhist Era⁶, about 543 years before the Christian Era. The Ancient Paradigm of the East started about the same time by the School of Caravaka, but it did not develop so much and died out soon. This paradigm believes that the Universe follows fixed Laws, but the Laws of this World cannot give Man a real happiness. The medieval men who had this paradigm in their hearts devoted all their worldly resources to pave their ways for the happiness in the next life. They used to be very stingy for their own living, but very lavish in accumulating merits for the life-to-come. There were plenty of examples of those who were serious with it and lived a strictly mortified life. They constructed great and sumptuous cathedrals and religious objects, but only meager homes – just enough for their survival. Their ideal was different from those of the Ancient Paradigm who constructed temples just big enough for their greatest profile; but for their own residences, nothing was spared to make them the most useful and luxurious possible.

Meanwhile, there were some in their midst who lived by the Primitive or the Ancient Paradigms. Therefore, it is not surprising to see in all religions of that time the manifestations of all the three paradigms.

The supreme criterion of goodness in this paradigm is the conscience according to the teaching of each religion. You can transgress anything but the rules laid down by religious authority.

Modern Paradigm: Since the beginning of Natural Science around the year 1500, the scientific method stands up as a fixed and clear method for the advanced knowledge of the Universe. After establishing itself as an independent subject, the Natural Science invented and progressed so tremendously and rapidly that many people hope that it may solve all problems of Man: one day it might cure and prevent all diseases, eliminate death and old age. All men might remain young for eternity, fearing no sickness, old age nor death. The scientific method might be applied to society organization, so that men might share their happiness with equity and justice. Men would share their responsibility by working each one as least as possible. Most of their time would be spent in recreation and enjoyment, without any mixture of fear and worry of any kind. Our Earth would become “a Paradise on Earth” without any need for a future life.

⁶ Editor’s Note: Professor Richard Gombrich has proven the dates of the Buddha to be from 484 BCE – 404 BCE, by tracing records of ordination backwards.  See: Richard Gombrich. “Dating the Buddha: A Red Herring Revealed”. Heinz Bechert, ed., The Dating of the Historical Buddha/Die Datierung des historischen Buddha, Part 2 (Symposien zur Buddhismusforschung, IV,2), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1992, pp. 237-259. Therefore accepting the ‘traditional’ date of the Buddha’s life as 623-543 BCE may go against the very Kalama Sutta [the Anguttara-nikaya's Kesaputta Sutta] that he issues.

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This Paradigm believes that the Universe followed fixed Laws. By knowing enough Laws of the Universe, we may transform our Earth into a real Paradise. The believers of this Paradigm devoted all resources to promote the scientific researches, so that the aimed yearning may become true as soon as possible. The fundamentalists set up policies to undermine all kinds of religious beliefs and hope for the happiness in the after-life. Nevertheless, living along with them were those of the Primitive, Ancient and Medieval Paradigms. In all aspects of life, there were manifestations of the four Paradigms competing with each other. The same phenomenon can be said about the beliefs and the practices of the members of all religions.

The supreme criterion of goodness in this Paradigm is Reason. Reason is used to convince the people. It is the criterion of all kinds of judgment and evaluation. “Reasonable is always right, and unreasonable is always wrong.”

The Effects of Creative Capacity:

In the past, the Creative Capacity from the First to the Fourth Paradigm, gave us both satisfaction and frustration. Through Critical Evaluation, we find out that frustration is greater than satisfaction.

Satisfaction:

The success of sciences through the Fourth Paradigm suggested a hope that one-day Natural Sciences will be able to solve all human problems: we shall be able to cure all diseases, prevent all weak symptoms, eliminate all harmful viruses, prevent and cure even senility. In a word, we shall be immortal in this World.

As there is no more sickness, senility, or death for all humans, we have no need of new members, so new birth will be completely eliminated. We shall waste no more time for education of the young and for hospital services. All schools and hospitals will be closed forever. We shall use computer and robots to help us as much as possible for the remaining services. Humans will work very little, but will have a great deal of time for recreation and touring. By dividing and sharing our works and responsibilities to humanity, it is possible that one person may work only for one day in a month and take rest for the rest of the month. For traveling, each person will be given a traveling machine, by which he can go anywhere with a desired velocity by just pushing the buttons. For cookery, each one will receive enough food capsules for each month and a certain number of tickets for delicious dishes prepared under the computer control so that health, quality and excellent taste may be guaranteed. Presidency and Premiership will be the most tiresome positions, so we shall ask 30 persons to undertake the burden of each position, and they also take turn in their offices, so that each one should work only one day per month and can rest also like others for the remaining days of the months. This is the prospected Paradise on Earth that the promoters of the Fourth Paradigm may aspire.

In such a situation described above, all citizens of the World Government will be satisfied. There will be no more aspiration for anything better. No one will aspire for the right of something more or something less. Each one enjoys oneself or abstains

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from his right at will. There will be no more jealousy, competition, persecution, corruption, nor opportunism. Everyone will be willing to perform one’s duty -minimum service and enjoy one’s own maximum pleasure. Permanent Peace will be realized once and for all. This is the Utopia, the Paradise on Earth.

Disappointments:

The First World War took about 10 millions of human lives because the warriors used scientific weapons to kill each other and destroy a lot of valuables. The Second World War sacrificed about 100 millions of human lives and invaluable treasures of humanity because the Warring-Nations used technology and nuclear energy to exterminate one another. If a third World War should occur, most probably, the whole humanity will be extinct and the Earth itself will be split into pieces. Science is creative and destructive.

It seems, at present, that there is not any possible prospective that human kind will be able to avoid sickness, senility (old age) and bringing up new generations. Medical Science sees no end of preventing and curing diseases because when one disease seems to be under control, one or more new diseases appear upon the scenario, often more serious than the overcomed-one. Moreover, the hope of preventing senility seems to be farther away than before because decay seems to be naturally innate to every individual living creature, as birth and growth. In this case, there is no disease to prevent or to kill and to prevent nature is evidently unnatural.

The more the sciences advance, the poorer the people become. The poor people now work harder than before, still they do not have enough to eat. A small number of the rich people become richer and richer, and they themselves do not know what the extent of becoming richer is, because the greater riches cannot add any more to their actual pleasure, but worries and pains. However, they cannot resist their own instinctive desire of having more and more without limit.

The progress of Science and Technology brings with it all kinds of pollutions of environments, the dilemma of which no one, so far, can find an effective way out. (If you want to solve the problem you have to progress more in scientific invention, and if you invent more, you pollute more!)

With the advancement of technology so far, men do not work less as it was expected before. On the contrary, they have to work more to pay more taxes to develop the defensive capacity of the Government, and also to pay more expenses for the safety of their own lives, their families and properties.

Causes of War and Peace:

Once we come to the conclusion that another World War cannot be allowed to happen without risking the total destruction of Humanity and the Earth, we must be sure that we can prevent it effectively, because we cannot concede to even another risk. We must immediately analyze to find out the real sufficient cause of War so that we may tackle the right problem. We find out fortunately by the capacity of our critical mind, that it is the ‘attachment’.    We find out further that all the four previous

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Paradigms belong to the same category ~ Philosophy of Attachment – that is when an opinion is confirmed right, all the others must be wrong. The followings are the sequences of attachment:

Attachment      begets    Division

Division           begets    Competition

Competition   begets    Distrust

Distrust            begets    Annihilation

Annihilation   begets    Fights and Wars.

It is not surprising, then, that the whole course of the History of Mankind is full of wars and fighting. It is a pitiful observation that the whole Human History sees only one fortnight of global peace – no record of any fighting between nations. It was the only special fortnight after the explosion of the Atomic Bomb over Nagasaki.

Therefore, if we can eradicate attachment from human minds, it will be like throwing the cause of wars into the flame, or cut the Invading Fire from the blowing-wind. By so doing, we hope to eradicate wars, fights and quarrels from the roots. Detachment will replace attachment, thus:

We evaluate, then, that if we wish peace we have to eradicate attachment. Method of Growing Detachment:

The birth of Detachment means the death of Attachment. However, we cannot cause a sudden birth of Detachment nor cause the sudden death of its counterpart. Detachment is born gradually in proportion to the gradual death of Attachment. Detachment starts with the first doubt. The start of Detachment may be caused by a nonsense doubt, a doubt that should not be doubted, a doubt that does not concern any interest, a doubt that does not affect any belief. Once a nonsense doubt is proved to be a real doubt, it will stir up profounder and more serious doubts, until the Attachment itself is challenged.

The Inquisitive Capacity:

We had seen how the Human Creative Capacity is critical if it is not controlled by the Adaptive Capacity. As for the Adaptive Capacity, it would not be strong enough to perform its controlling duty, if it is not strengthened by the Inquisitive Capacity. Humanity is lucky to have this last capacity abundantly. Men need four accessories for living: provisions, clothing, shelter and remedies. If a man has not enough for living, he struggles; but when he has enough, he is still dissatisfied, because, out of the depth

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of his nature, he yearns for something higher than the material requisites. Man keeps searching for it until he finds it in a form of religion that satisfies the supra-material needs of man, at least phenomenologically.

The common teaching of all Religions is the belief in the life-to-come – for the continuation of this life. A system of thought that has no concern about the next life, may be a philosophical system, but cannot be a Religion. Religions are also Philosophies: philosophies that believe in the life-after-death. However, Religions require more than Philosophies: they require regulations to be observed in order to conform to the belief of the life-to-come.

Religions are social phenomena that no intellectual should overlook whether or not he believes in any of them. That is because the human Inquisitive Capacity is so powerful that it can bring fourth many beneficial achievements that nothing of equal quality can perform. Nevertheless, if this capacity were wrongly used, great damage would result instead. We can read from History of Mankind that Religious Wars are crueler than Political Wars; Political Wars are crueler than Economical Wars; and Wars between Sects of the same Religion are the cruelest than Wars between two different Religions.

Interpretation of Religious Language:

Surface Meaning is the meaning at the level of the ordinary people, imbued with personal feeling and inclination. Oftentimes they quarrel with each other because of their differences in their feelings and inclinations, with the result of killing and wounding each other, leaving aside the smaller innumerable cases of hurting and displeasing the feeling of each other.

Let us take the word “snake” as an example. When people hear the word “snake”, they may bear different meanings in each of their mind. Some of them may be able to understand only the surface meaning and nothing more: that is they understand according to their own feelings and inclinations when they have experiences with snakes in their lives. Some may have an experience of eating snakes and like to eat them; some may hate snakes because they were once bitten by snakes; or some may be snake-tamers and have experiences of playing with snakes; some may have experiences of healing poisonous-snake bites, and some others may have experiences of bringing up snake in a snake-farm, etc. All these people have various experiences with snakes and have different feelings about snakes, because of profits or damages they might gain experiences from snakes.

Deep Meaning is the meaning at the scientific level. The people at this level have also feelings and experiences about snakes and have therefore the surface meaning in their minds, but they know that it is only relative understanding at the popular level. They try, therefore, to get the scientific data about snakes and deduce a scientific knowledge independent of feeling and inclination. It is scientific and absolute knowledge based on the scientific method. “Snake is a crawling animal, without feet, moving through scales under the abdomen.

The Deepest Meaning is the meaning in the mind of the mystical communicators, especially the Founders of Religions and of the Religious Schools. These venerable persons understand something beyond ordinary human experiences.

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They cannot express it by ordinary languages to communicate what they experience or to explain their experiences. The communicates also understand according to their experiences (surface meaning) or according to what they can deduce from their experiences (deep meaning). If they try to understand the language of the mystics they may understand these two levels. They can never rise up to the understanding itself of the mystical communicators. Many mystics, e.g. the Pacceka Buddhas, emphasize at this human defect and decide not to communicate so as to avoid misunderstanding. Some, however, like Sammasam-Buddhas hope that at least some disciples may reach the “deeper meaning”.

We can imagine an allegory of a man climbing up and reach the top of a high mountain. He sees a beauty never experienced by his villagers in the valley. However, he desires to share to his village fellows the beauty he perceives. He comes down to his village on the valley and tries to communicate to the villagers by comparing, in many ways, to what the villagers can understand in their experiences. Most villagers laugh at him because of their incredulity. Some suspect something behind and beyond their ordinary experiences. The latter climb up the same mountain. The more they climb up, the more extraordinary experiences they see: they are having the “deeper meaning”, until they reach the top of the mountain, then they experience the same beauty as the communicators. Now they have the same difficulty to explain what they see to the people in the valley. If they try to do at all they have to use the same method of the first communicator, to use the language of ordinary experiences to explain the extraordinary unknown experiences. Such a communication is called by Venerable Buddhadasa “Dharmic Language”, which means using the Human Language (the Language of ordinary experiences) to explain what is beyond. We have to look for the inner part beyond the cover to see the core of reality.

Deeper Meaning is the meaning at the level of Dharma-practitioners of any religion. They are not satisfied with the ordinary levels of human language, so they put Religious Precepts into practice, though they don’t clearly understand yet the ‘what and why’, but they have confidence in the communicator and believe in His words. By practicing, they are sure to get deeper and deeper meaning of reality. The more they practice, the deeper meaning of reality they reach and they are happy. It is the happiness unexperienced by those who never practice it at all.

Critical Meaning derives from the fifth paradigm of philosophy. It is composed of an analysis and evaluation with an unbiased attitude. At this level, we take all levels as granted and consider all of them as data for our analysis and evaluation, so that we may choose the best at the moment, and always expect the best. It is the Contextual Method that leads us to the Critical Understanding.

By the above analysis we find out that the fifth level is the best for contemporary intellectuals to follow, because it opens the way to further and further creativity: the intellectual creativity for peaceful co-existence of Mankind. Surely it does not promise a way to supernatural happiness – to reach a required religious means. This fifth level promises only the sure way for enhancing the quality of life for all people-of good-will, regardless of their faiths or traditions. It prepares, however, the sure means for any religious way that brings them to the deeper and deepest meanings.

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Understanding and putting into practice is required for the enhancement of the quality of life in all levels is necessary.

Character Education by Three-Dare Principle:

To dare to encounter problems. We have to accept that to be born human means to encounter problems. Problems are not our burdens, but our delicious daily bread. We make up our mind to enjoy it. Such an attitude will render us happy and able to help others to be happy.

Observe a school head-master who shuns problems. He suffers with problems and cannot avoid them. Suppose a student is wounded: then becomes gets angry and is in bad mood. He tries to throw the burden on a teacher, but no one is willing to collaborate with him. The one who is called out, by him feels reluctant and thinks of himself as unlucky. He lives in misery until his death. He does not suffer alone but causes also sufferings in others. He witnesses only the first of the four Noble Truths taught by the Lord Buddha, that is Man is born in suffering and he will suffer until his last moment. It is a pity that he is a man, but he does not know enjoying to be a Man.

Another school head-master in another school is a man who loves encountering the problems. Suppose a student is wounded: he shows his willingness to shoulder the problem with full responsibility and happiness. Everybody wants to collaborate with him, because it means good experience and sharing in success. Problems are his delicious dishes. He enjoys encountering his own problems and those of others. He is happy and is ready to help others to be happy. The more he is happy, the more he helps others to be happy. The more he helps others to be happy, the more he becomes happy. He is the Man who enjoys being a Man. He witnesses all the four Noble Truths: Man is born in suffering, but it is possible to get out of it and he can get out of it.

To dare to evaluate the solution. When the problem is encountered face-to-face, it is not as great as we fear it to be. Now, with tranquility of mind, we study all the possible ways to get out of it. We weigh the pros and cons of each possible solution. We may inquire from books, from experts, from experiences until we are satisfied, then we choose the best according to our actual estimation.

To dare to act with responsibility. When we act upon the best possible solution, we are responsible that it is always really the best one. After some handing, we may find out some drawbacks; it is not really the best solution. We are ready to improve it. Our slogan will not be only “Eureka” (I found it!), but “I found it in order to search further”. Ours will be a life of research. We shall always find something new. New things make our life always new. In so doing, our life will be always fresh and enthusiastically new. We shall always keep the sentiment of the Psalmist who sang about 3,000 years ago and the Christians have always repeated the same meaning: “I sing the new song to the Lord.” It is always new in the sentiment of enthusiasm, though it has been repeated millions of millions of times since the composition, but it is always new in the sentiment of the singers.

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To be a Man of the World and for the World:

A Man-of-the-World is satisfied with only observing, analyzing systematizing the World. He may gain a great amount of exciting knowledge; it is not enough for the Man-for-the-World. He will proceed to evaluate and find out how to improve the Worlds, including himself. The first step of evaluating is to evaluate the truth value of the five aspects of human interest as shown above. We have accordingly five aspects of human truth.

Mathematical Truth. It is true according to the assumptions (axioms + postulates). This kind of truth helps facilitating the systematization of ratios among material objects, and ratios of their changes.

1 + 1 = 1 is true, if we suppose that the units can be unified, as in the example of adding one sand heap to another sand heap result in the unification of the two heaps of sand into one bigger heap of it. By the same token, one drop + one drop = one drop (of water or any liquid).

1 + 1 = 2 is true according to our supposition that the units cannot be unified, e.g. one-baht coin plus one-baht coin must be separated to make two-baht coins.

1 + 1 = 3 is true, if we suppose that the units cannot be unified, but can reproduce new units. We can draw a clear-cut example from a marriage of one man and one woman, which after some times there will be three, four, or five persons.

Scientific Truth. This kind of truth is evaluated according to the data known at the time of the truth announced. When a concerned datum is changed, the truth is subjected to change. Manuals of Sciences require perpetual changes because of this reason. We can say that the Scientific Manuals begin to be backward on the day of the publication itself. It continues to be more and more backward until a new manual of the same subject is published, then, it becomes immediately obsolete. This is the case because it is scientifically believed that the later publication should contain more current data. Nevertheless, in fact, it depends also on the actual knowledge of the writer concerning the subject he is writing about. If he has only backward data, his book is surely backward. It is not so with the religious books, the more remote in time, the higher accredited they are.

For example, the age of humanity on earth had been calculated according to the data of the Bible, from the world creation to the first Christmas, to be 4,004 years, making the total age of the Universe about 6,000 years.

When I was studying in the Primary Classes, the student manuals put out 10,000 years as the age of humanity on earth. The Secondary Classes manuals extended it to 100,000 years. When I was at the University, I was told that the age of humanity may be as remote as 500,000 years. When I began my profession as instructor at Chulalongkorn University, the data fixed it at 1,000,000 years, but more recent researches confirmed to be more possibly 2,000,000 years. Among these different figures which one is true? – This concerns scientific truth, therefore each figure is true in its context; that is, it is true according to the known data of the time of the announcement. No figure can claim to be the absolute truth, because we expect new data offering new scientific truths. The future figure may be two, three, four, five, … millions of years.

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Historical Truth. It is evaluated according to the testimonies which may be monuments and documents. Documents may be oral or written. Where the testimonies are defective, the scholars’ conjectures try to supplement them. Therefore, the Historical Truth can be changed whenever there is a change in the testimonies which may occur when new testimonies are discovered or old testimonies are found to be false of fake. Where scholars’ conjectures disagree – the fact that most often occurs – various schools of thought are proposed to the curiosity of the audience and challenges researchers to find out more testimonies or profounder insight of the problems concerned.

Where is the remotest origin of the Thai race? The traditionalists say that the Thai people emigrated from the Altai Mountain Range and stationed themselves at the Southern Provinces of China, before a part of them migrated to the actual Thailand. However, the Progressives prefer to announce that the Thai race stationed themselves here. Parts of them emigrated to many directions, and some stationed in the Southern Provinces of China. After some time, some of them turned back home in a series of eventualities: only this last event is well documented.

Philosophical Truth. This is evaluated according to the basic belief of each person. To evaluate in this way is called Contextual Philosophy. There are many other Schools of Philosophy, but the Contextual Philosophy developed into Postmodernism is most appropriate to enhance the quality of life, to promote mutual understanding and sincere collaboration.

The basic belief may come from the popular Five Paradigms of Thoughts, from renowned philosophies, or from personal insights. The Four Idols have great influence on the choice and decision of each person’s belief. Once a belief is chosen, a Philosophical Truth starts, then other Philosophical Truths will follow indefinitely.

Religious Truth. This kind of Truth is evaluated according to the capacity of enhancing the quality of life.

Why Religious Scriptures are globally the best sellers for all time and accept no change from the original text? Because they will never be obsolete as long as their Religions are living. It is not so with others, say Scientific Truth which requires continual modifications. Such is the case of Religious Truth, because the Religious readers of Religious Scriptures intend to find principally the Religious Truth principally as the means for the betterment of their quality of life. If they read for the Scientific or Historical Truths, they do not read as Religious persons as such, but as a Scientist or a Historian. Surely, they can get better information by reading more up-to-date materials. In fact the Religious readers of the Scriptures do not mind if the Scientific or the Historian data therein are obsolete, provided that they are there to present the context for the profound understanding of the Founders’ intention, and therefore they know how to enhance their quality of life. For all this utmost important reason, all contexts must be preserved intact, neither by adding nor by erasing, so that the Founders’ spirit may remain in the Scriptures as it is forever.

When the Buddhist Scriptures say that the Lord Buddha, immediately after his Birth, walked seven steps and under each step a lotus appeared to receive His step -Religious readers do not bother to learn if it is historical scientific Truth or not, but pay attention to the intention of this passage along the way of enhancing the quality of life. Instead of troubling themselves about scientific data or the historical testimonies; they

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prefer to identify with the Religious interpretation that lies behind the narration, such as: a person of great merit [the Lord Buddha] is always welcome by good people all over the world. Good people surely have pure and beautiful hearts lotuses.

The intention of all Religious Founders is primarily the enhancing of the quality of life. The Religious readers have to conform to this intention. Those who read for scientific data or historical testimonies are not religious readers and they should have more profit by reading more up-to-date treatises that are written directly for their purposes.

Such is the Religious Truth – the Truth that intends to enhance quality of life. A Religion is prosperous only when the faithful read their Scriptures for the betterment of their quality of life. A Religion that no longer enhances the quality of life is doomed to die away. Scriptures that are not read anymore for the betterment of the quality of life, lose their status as Religious Scriptures to become only Religious Literature which may be read or studied like any other literature. We may conclude as follows:

Man as a Part of the World, Can

Know the World (Scientists)

Organize the World (Mathematicians)

Learn from the World (Historians)

Modify the World (Philosophers)

Improve the World (Religious Leaders)

Man as a Benefactor of the World, Must

Evaluate the Truth

Evaluate the Language

Enhance the Quality of Life

To enhance the Quality of life, one must:

Be Peaceful With Oneself. Various methods of oriental meditation and yoga, practiced in the right way, may help to reach this goal. However, students must be discrete in this matter, because nowadays there are many false masters who have not or have wrong knowledge, work for lucrative purpose and lead many astray. Much mental and spiritual turbulence is caused by their ignorance. The right method must bring the practitioners to calm and internal peace. If the opposite is the result, please stop and seek for another master proved to be authentic.

Be Peaceful With Neighbors. To this end Philosophy and Ethics may help. Philosophy helps us to know our own and other’s hearts, to be able to understand various paradigms and hence to bring to a calm disinterestedness. As for Ethics, it helps us be able to analyze and evaluate everything concerning human happiness and suffering, then to select with Critical Mind.

Be Peaceful With Society. To be so, knowledge of Laws and Traditions may help. Whether we like it or not, we have to know the social norms and keep them for Society’s sake, otherwise we shall fall into intermittent troubles.

Be Peaceful With Nature. In this matter, sincere Love is important. We have to practice Love until it is our habit to love everything, one another, and things that we should love: to love Dhamma or God (according to the beliefs of each), to love our

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parents, relatives, our beloved ones, friends, fellow men, environment and Nature. Anything we love, we care for it and preserve it so that we and our beloved ones can also love it.

Those, who love fellow humans and have a strong desire for them to be happy, seek happiness on the happiness of others and care for everything that will bring happiness to everyone. Sharers of suffering, be happy! This is the Postmodern Buddhism and Ethics.

Contemporary China’s Mahāyāna Buddhist Sangha Education

The Most Ven. Xue Cheng

Vice President & Secretary-General, The Buddhist Association of China Vice President, The Buddhist Academy of China

Preface

Buddhism originates from ancient India – one of four ancient regions with great human civilizations. Sakyamuni Buddha founded a religious-system from his great practices almost 2,600 years ago – through boundless epochs; currently, his system remains as one of the three major religious beliefs in the world. It cultivates wholesome virtues from human society and allows people to purify their minds -allowing them to become delivered from afflictions and sufferings. It emphasizes all living beings are able to reach the ultimate awakening – as the goal.

Buddhism was introduced to China in about the 1^st century A.D. It has been localized as Chinese Buddhism with Chinese national characteristics – over the duration of its dissemination and development. Chinese Buddhism has developed unique characteristics with differences in regional areas – dependent on which era or route the Buddhism was absorbed from – illustrating the differences in national cultures or social and historical background. China features three linguistic branches of Buddhism: Buddhism in Chinese language, Tibetan Language, or the Pāli Language in Yunnan.

Buddhism in Chinese language refers to Mahāyāna Buddhism, as largely practiced by the Chinese Han nationality. Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism integrated with traditional cultures – giving rise to various sects and schools with ‘native’ distinctions – evident in long-length sutra translations and lectures, as well as integrative interpretations. Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism was also introduced into Korea and Japan, as well as Thailand – during periods of Chinese prosperity throughout different historical periods.

Since the 19^th Century, under the influences of the Industrial Revolution -the situation and perception of religious-beliefs in western countries has changed -while various forms of Buddhism found throughout Asia were introduced to the Western-world. Since then, Buddhism has obtained popularity among the people than any other religion in Western society. With rapid changes, both in society and in scientific-technology in world today – in the 21^st century, Buddhism enlarges its influences and deepens its root in human society. Since 1980′s, as more and more western people worried about the bad effects of modernization, they began to seek refuges in Buddhism, with humbled minds. Moreover, in the Chinese mainland, and the regions of Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan – there has been a growing trend towards Buddhism, through influence and promotion. Buddhism flourishes in areas of Chinese influence.

In April of 2006, the First World Buddhist Forum was proudly held in Zhejiang, in Eastern China through the joint-efforts of the hosts: the Buddhist Association of China, and the Chinese Religions Culture Communication Association. There were more than one thousand eminent monks or distinguished guests from 37

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countries and regions attending this forum. The grand ‘assembly’ gained global attention.

In modern China, Buddhism gradually was thrown into the wane along with the Qing Dynasty’s decline. Buddhist communities lacked talented people, because only Buddhist sutra-service confessions were popular at this time. At the end of 19^th century, many people inside and outside of Buddhist circles realized Sangha education should be rejuvenated – modern schools were established for the Mahāyāna Sangha to revitalize Buddhist beliefs.

Modern Chinese Mahāyāna Sangha education can be traced back to the early part of the 20^th century. In 1903, Ven. Li Yun in Kaimu Monastery in Changsha, Hunan established Hunan Sangha School, which became the earliest modern Buddhist academy in China. Following this step, other Sangha-schools began: the Tianning Monastery of Changzhou and in Nanjing. In 1907, Rev. Yang Wenhui in Nanjing Jinling Sutra Printing House established a Buddhist school called the Sanskrit Academy. After the Revolution of 1911, various schools for Chinese Mahāyāna Sangha education flourished again. Popular schools at that time were: Huayan Buddhist University, founded in Shanghai in 1914; Guanzong Institute, founded in Shuangzong Monastery in Ningbo of Zhejiang; Wuchang Buddhist Academy with complete modern educational modes, founded in Wuchang of Hubei in 1922; Minnan Buddhist Academy, founded in Nanputuo Monastery of Fujian in 1925; China Buddhist Academic School in Nanjing in 1922; the Sanshi Buddhist Academic Society in Beijing in 1927; and the Institute of Han and Tibetan Buddhism in Chongqing of Sichuan in 1932. Through the changing times and different historical situations, all these Buddhist sangha schools gradually waned during the warring-period, from 1930′s to 1940′s.

Looking back upon the history of Buddhism, developments in nations should not depend upon how many Buddhist temples were constructed or how many Buddhist disciples there were in the country – considerations must include the possession of a qualified Buddhist Sangha. In the Tang Dynasty of China, ordinations were very strict – novice monks had to pass thorough examinations. The great Buddhist sutra translator and traveler, the Most Venerable Xuan Zang became a monk under this system. Many other countries, historically, have issued strict regulations, forcing the Buddhist Sangha to maintain pure precepts.

After the founding of People’s Republic of China, the Buddhist Academy of China was established in Fayuan Monastery of Beijing. The Buddhist Association of China, since 1956, has been the highest Chinese Mahāyāna Sangha academy, nationally – for over fifty years. In contemporary China, there are about forty Buddhist academies or schools, of various sizes – having different Buddhist training courses, enjoying popularity amongst monastic communities. Training courses, in some ways, plays a very key role in the education of monks. Although Buddhist academies are booming nowadays in China -under the contemporary situation: there are not enough graduates from Buddhist academies to meet the growing demands of people reclaiming Buddhist beliefs.

Chinese Buddhism has enjoyed more than 2,000 years of history since first introduced into China. It features the coexistence of three Buddhist linguistic-branches, or language-family types found within the country. The three Buddhist linguistic-branches spread into China in succession, and in different forms with unique content-characterizations.    Due to the coexistence of the three linguistic-branches, China

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abounds in Buddhist culture – an accumulation, perhaps unparalleled in the world.

Historically, Chinese Buddhism has gone through different epochs in its growth; but Buddhism in contemporary China is booming – since an open-policy by the Chinese government began in 1978. In the world today, with the flourishing of materialism, science and technology – there are numerous challenges confronting the Chinese Mahāyāna Sangha education. All these problems are not only limited to the Buddhist linguistic-branches found in China – but are also challenges Buddhists, globally.

The ancient Chinese philosopher, Guan Zi, suggested: a one year’s plan is needed for planting crops, a ten years’ plan should be made for planting trees, and a life-long plan is needed for the cultivation of talented people. Over the past thirty-years since the Chinese government conducted this open-policy, Chinese Buddhist circles have taken Sangha education as its principle task to cultivate qualified young monks for the future of Chinese Buddhism. The insightful Chinese Buddhist leaders reached an agreement for establishing more schools devoted to Sangha education. The Rev. Zhao Puchu, the late President of B.A.C. suggested Chinese Buddhism is in a grand-new era abundant in helpful situations, and hopes to stay on this path originating from this historical turn of event – being more than just a mere link between the past and future, because all Buddhists are in a great need to develop. Therefore, more and more educated monks would play key roles in the realization of this historical development in Chinese Buddhism.

In the Chinese Mahāyāna traditional-system of practicing and learning -learning doesn’t simply mean ‘studies’. In Buddhist terms, it means listening and thinking – learning means listening and thinking about Buddhadharma. Pertaining to the higher-levels, the Buddhadharma being learned should relate towards personal practices: both physically and mentally. The abolishment and purification of mental affiliations allows for cultivation or practice of higher-levels. The complete combination of listening and thinking, as well as practicing, refers to the integration of practicing and learning. This means: practicing what you learn for realities and be equipped with the ability to link theory with these realities.

Due to objective reasoning, monks in temples have become engaged with management work or daily temple affairs – inducing a void in learning; while some circumstances might not allow for learning. In this case, when engaging in temple-work, most are without Buddhadharma guidance and fail to really progress. More daily-affairs engage monks, annoying them – or management work bounds them with affiliations. In other instances, although there are some monks who attend only to chanting the names of the various attributes to the Buddha, they have no experience or interest in listening or learning sutras, or reading books – leading them into false beliefs, harmful to both themselves and others, because their weak practice is without systematic learning and training. To confront these problems, Putian Guanghua Monastery in Fujian, China opened classes for monks – to listen to and learn Buddhadharma during their spare time, after daily activities.

The Buddhist academies are similar to public or social schools with professional teachers and arranged lessons – in Buddhist theories. In fact, although monk-students take part in temple activities, like: chanting, dining, or doing daily affairs – this is not enough for training to be a real ‘qualified’ member of the Sangha.

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Temples should arrange for outstanding monk-student to become administrators or manage temple-affair tasks. In this scenario, real management of temple affairs would enable monk-students to perform what they have learned – turning ‘theory’ into practice. From the combination of practicing and learning in better ways – new Sangha educational-modes for Buddhist academies functioning in temples and any arising problems, could be worked out.

With the theory of Buddhist academy functioning as a temple, temple functioning as a Buddhist academy – monk-students in academies, with their knowledge of Buddhadharma, would have the chance to use what they have learned towards practicing the truths of Buddhadharma. Temple-monks, through training classes, could manage temple daily-affairs with Buddhadharma; through lessons, they benefit themselves and others. In this case, daily affairs could be done well, while burdensome affiliations would be released – enabling greater awareness into real meaningful life experiences.

Fujian Buddhist Academy was founded in 1983, through the efforts of the late Most Ven. Yuan Zhuo and late Most Ven. Miao Zhan. It is one of the key Buddhist academies founded during the beginning of Chinese government’s open policy. The academy is divided into two branches: one for Bhiksu and the other for Bhiksuni. The Bhiksu branch is at the Putian Guanghua Monastery while the Bhiksuni branch is at the Fuzhou Chongfu Nunnery – which enjoys fame as the best nunnery in Southern China. Education in their Buddhist academy is very different from that of public schools – they aim at focusing on teaching Buddhist knowledge and cultivation of the qualified monk’s ‘personage’, through basic qualities: monk-student vows, aspirations, virtues, talent, and knowledge. Therefore, there are both multi-media modes and traditional teachings for monk-students in the academy – monk-students obtaining rich Buddhist knowledge. In the Putian Guanghua Monastery, both the cultivation of monks and management of the academy fall under the role of the monastery. Monks in the academy and temple enjoy the religious life through sutra-chanting, dining, labor, reciting precepts and undertaking retreats together. Outstanding monk-students in the academy are given practical experience in temple management. Monk-graduates from Fujian Buddhist Academy are not only good at teaching in the Buddhist academy, but also can do management work in Buddhist temples. They maintain traditional Sangha practices and apply lessons to fit modern society. With abundant knowledge and intelligence, they convert what they learn into practical experiences. In the spring of 2004, when the finger relics of Famen Monastery in Fufeng, Shānxi were taken to Hong Kong for worship, there were eight monk-students from Fujian Buddhist Academy on Dharma-duty, accompanying the relics. With these outstanding qualities and deeds – they won high praises from Hong Kong Buddhist communities.

After 25 years’ of hard work since its founding, Fujian Buddhist Academy enjoys fruitful achievements. With increasing fame and popularity among Chinese Buddhist circles, there is a group of outstanding young masters qualified in both belief and academics. There are dozens of teachers from both the academy and secular-social schools – educating in three levels. Lessons cover the Buddhist schools of Abhidharma Kosa-satra; Wei-Shih; T’ien-t’ai; Pure Land; Vinaya; and Madhyamika. Presently there are 200 monk students in the academy.   To this day, about 1,400 monk-students have

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graduated from the academy. There are 40 graduates in further studies at the Buddhist Academy of China and 60 graduates teaching in other Buddhist academies nationwide; more than 50 graduates are furthering their studies or propagations in various other countries; and more than 100 graduates are employed in the management of different national Buddhist associations – in various levels. Other graduates take charge of various temples or propagate Buddhadharma. There are 200 literary-essays published in various religious magazines nationwide and dozens issued in journals abroad and over ten Buddhist academic texts issued. Under these achievements in education and management, there are many delegations from Buddhist communities in Japan, South Korea, America, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Singapore and Indonesia as well as regions of Hong Kong and Taiwan that visit the Fujian Buddhist Academy to experience exchange and friendly communication.

Looking back upon the history of Buddhism, Buddhism was a very advanced religious-system, while Buddhist organizations were very advanced units. In these cases, both the historical and present circumstances and responsibilities of the Buddhist organizations should be clearly noted. Buddhism is a religion with belief as its roots; salvation – as fruit; education as the trunk; and culture as branches. In order to: enhance the fundamental quality of Buddhist fourfold-disciples; to carry forward the spirit of Buddhism for the people’s benefit; to contribute to life; and purifying the human mind -in contemporary China, a new system of practicing and learning Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism was begun towards social development. Within the practical learning-system of Mahāyāna Buddhism, in accordance to the real need for a qualified Sangha to develop Buddhism – traditional education is the foundation, leaving the standards of the will, aspiration, virtues – to the knowledgeable talent developing within modern Chinese Mahāyāna Sangha education.

To eliminate ‘practical’ deficiencies in monk-students in Buddhist schools, unlearned in sutras – they are encouraged to take advantage of practice in traditional temples and the education found in modern Buddhist academies. From letting temples function as institutes and letting institutes function as temples – a combination of management practice and learning develops under modern regulations.

To maintain a harmonious and peaceful Sangha, under the practical learning systems – ordinations, learning the precepts, and undertaking meditation retreats accord to regulations are undertaken. In order to unite the fourfold-assembly of Buddhists -benefiting society, we established an advanced group of masters, students and laity -peacefully and quietly. In order to enrich practice and learning, we initiated the desalination of the differences in Buddhist schools – to take advantage of benefits found within the various schools of Chinese Buddhism. Moreover, young monk-students are encouraged to practice in ‘reality’ for greater experiences – and through the teachings of eminent monks, they obtain advice and progress in knowledge and practice. Through various effective measures to cultivate culture and social advantages – outstanding monk-students are sent abroad to study – for greater progression in Buddhist knowledge. This experimentation demonstrates successful stages in the practical learning system developed in Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Buddhism, existing for more than 2,500 years, is a precious heritage human civilization and societies – remaining glorious since ancient times. We are confident, only if we take unremitting, forwarding steps and efforts together, for Buddhism -

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Buddhism as regarded as the lofty monument from Asian civilizations. Buddhism will become more ‘splendid’ again and contribute more towards peace, progress, and the happiness of all sentient-beings.

Educational Program or System of Buddhist University (Mandalay & Rangon)

Professor UMyint Swe, Founder & Rector of Buddhist University (Mandalay & Rangon)

While working at the “State Pariyatti Sasana University”, I found sorrowfully that most (75% or 80%) of the matriculated monks were not admitted to that Sasana University, due to the difficulties of lodging, class-rooms, meal and so on. Therefore, in order to give those unfortunate matriculated monks such a rare chance of getting advanced good university education, soon after my retirement in 1994, I founded a   Private   University,   known   as   “Buddhist   University,   Mandalay   (BUM)”,

(in the compound of ‘Central Sukhar monastery, 83^rd Street, between the 32^nd and 33^rd Roads). Upon receiving the good advice often eminent Venerable Monks (Sayadaws) of Mandalay, where I, acting as the Professor and Rector as well, taught those monks various subjects such as English, Pāli, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Philology, Buddhism and so on.

When I got some assistant teachers, I adopted the “seven year course (first) Program up to the Master Degree (Indo-Aryan):- * two year Diploma course, * two year B.A. course and three year M.A. course”. For each of those three fold courses, manifold subjects suitable for Buddhist academic and missionary tasks are prescribed and taught, as shown in the “Syllabuses for all classes”.

When “Buddhist University, Mandalay” came to the age of ten years, I had about twenty teachers who already got M.A. degree, and founded another “Buddhist University, Rangon” (BUR), in 2004 with the help of those qualified teachers (at the Sadhu-Pariyatti Monastery, Kyi-Myin-Dine Township, Rangon), which was managed by Venerable U Paññasiha, Secretary Sayadaw).

The Method of Teaching Pāli:

Indo-Aryan or Indian languages comprise many different local dialects (desi-bhasa), but very close to one another. There are two main groups (or families) of Indian languages, namely, Sanskrit and Prakrit, which are very similar to each other.

(1) Sanskrit, used by the Brahmans of educated class, who could spend much
time on education and earn their living or livelihood by education, contained the words
constructed or formed strictly in accordance with the grammatical rules and so it did not
undergo many changes throughout its long history.

(2) Prakrits, however, used by the common people who had to spend more
time on their livelihood than on education, inevitably underwent many changes,
generation by generation, according to the time (kala), locality (desa) and individual
(puggala), and comprise many different dialects which are very similar to one another,
such as “Pāli, Magadhi, Addha-Magadhi, Soraseni, Maha-ratthi, Pesaci, Apabhramsa
(early Prakrit), and Hindi, Bengali etc. (later Prakrit).

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The Buddha or Omniscient one, skilful in all those Indian languages, went on religious tour for 45 years, in many different parts of Central India (Majjhima-desa) in order to teach and propagate His Dhamma (Teaching of Truth) to the people for liberating them from worldly sufferings and leading them to Nibbāna, eternal bliss. As a result, numerous people from different parts of India came to the Buddha and entered the Buddhist Order (Sangha). And consequently their own dialects, slightly variant from, but very close to Pāli, intruded upon the Pāli literature.

Moreover, after the passing away (Parinibbāna) of the Buddha, His numerous missionary disciples, generation by generation, worked hard to teach and propagate the Buddha’s Dhamma or Buddhism, not only in different parts of India, but also in neighboring countries, such as Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Nepal, Tibet, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bengal, China and South-east Asian countries. When Buddhism declined in India, due to the Hindus and Muslims, Ceylon (and South India) came to the front in place of India and became the centre of Buddhism, by widely learning the Buddhist scriptures and writing numerous commentaries, sub-commentaries and many other books (ganthantara) on various topics, such as the traditional Pāli grammars and Pāli dictionaries etc. mainly based on the traditional Sanskrit works. For the above-said reasons, Sanskrit and Prakrit languages exercised a great influence on the later Pāli works.

European (or Euro-Aryan) languages and Indian (or Indo-Aryan) languages belong to the same family of “Indo-European Languages” and are very close or similar to each other. So the Europeans can easily learn the Indian languages and vice versa. [But the inhabitants of Far East and South-East Asian countries find it difficult in learning the European and Indian languages, because the language-family of

the former is quite different from that of the latter.] Since the late 19^th century AD, the liberal-minded European great scholars studied thoroughly both European and Indian (or Indo-Aryan) languages by means of the modern Philological method comparing those languages with each other and wrote the various works or books on Sanskrit, Pāli and other Prakrit languages, which served to know or understand those languages within a short time.

On the contrary, the traditionalist Venerable Sayadaws (abbots) in Asia, especially in Burma, spend a long time (longer than necessary) on learning Pāli by the traditional (outdated) method through the traditional Pāli grammars (such as the Kaccayana, Rupasiddhi, Moggalana, Saddaniti, Bhedacinta and so on), which give illogical or unsystematic (sometimes wrong) explanation of Pāli words, using the grammatical suttas, scattering here and there, but they never become skilful or expert in the real or systematic formation of Pāli words and are unable to decide the Pāli words-”which one is correct and which one is wrong”, and “which one is original (primary) form and which one is secondary form”.

So, let me say frankly “It is the best way to learn Pāli language by means of the time-saving modern (updated) method of philology, a comparative study of Pāli with Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, so that one can become, within a short time, an expert not only in Pāli but in other Indian languages (Sanskrit and Prakrits) as well”. For, the world-conditions are ever changing, the world seems to be as small as a village, and there are too many things to be learnt within a very short life-span. Moreover, it is the greatest mistake that the extreme traditionalist venerable Sayadaws (abbots) do not allow their pupil monks to study Sanskrit and English, and as a result most of

Educational Program or System of Buddhist University

the Burmese monks become backward in the worldly and religious matters, not knowing and not willing to take part in the missionary activities both at home and abroad. So, it is high time to urgently change, modernize or improve our traditional (outdated) monastic education (Pariyatti learning) to reach the international standard, in accordance with the ever-changing world situations.

Buddhist University (Mandalay & Rangon)

The aim of our Buddhist University (Mandalay and Rangon) is to teach the monks, nuns and laypeople to be skillful, in not only English, Pāli and Sanskrit, but also in Buddhism and other religions, for both academic and missionary purposes. There are nine Departments in our Buddhist University, namely-(1) Dept. of Vinaya-pitaka, (2) Dept. of Suttanta-pitaka, (3) Dept. of Abhidhamma-pitaka, (4) Dept. of Pāli and Philology, (5) Dept. of Sanskrit and Prakrit, (6) Dept. of English, (7) Dept. of History and Philosophy, (8) Dept. of Hindi and Chinese, (9) Dept. of Buddhist Missionary. Each Department has its own Head and Assistant teachers.

We have adopted three programs for academic and missionary purposes as shown below.

Program I:

Seven year Course for Diploma, B. A., M. A. (Indo-Aryan) - [This (first) program is adopted for the monks and nuns who have already passed the Pathamagyi (or Matriculation) examination and have a good knowledge of Pāli and Buddhism.]

Two year Diploma Course - For this course, the following subjects are taught:

• English grammar and lessons, equal to the matriculation-standard.
• Sanskrit grammar and lessons.
• Philology, a comparative study of Pāli and Sanskrit, and the important Pāli words
  are philologically explained through Sanskrit.
• Buddha’s     first     two     sermons- Dhammacakka.ppavattana     Sutta     and
  Anatta.lakkhana Sutta- translation of the text and meaning.
  • History of Pāli Pitakas and Atthakathas (commentaries).
  • History of Buddhism  in ancient India.   [Five  question papers  are   set for
    examination each year. ]

Two year B. A. Course - For this course the following subjects are taught:

• Vinaya Pitaka (Parajika. kanda) and its commentary.
• Suttanta Pitaka (Silakkhandha.vagga) and its commentary.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka (Dhammasangani) and its commentary.
• Sanskrit reader - “Hitopadesa stories”.
• Philology, a comparative study of Pāli and Sanskrit, and some difficult or peculiar
  Pāli words are philologically explained through Sanskrit.

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• Prakrit Languages - and Philology, a comparative study of Prakrit words with
  Pāli and Sanskrit.
  • Essays on Buddhism (in English, covering the various topics on Buddhism.)

Three year M. A. Course - For this course the following subjects are taught:

• Visuddhimagga in Pāli, a very famous digest of the three Pitakas, by Most
  Venerable Commentator Buddhaghosa.
  • History of Buddhism and Pāli Literature in Ceylon or Sri Lanka.
  • History of Buddhism and Pāli Literature in Burma (Myanmar).
  • Vedic literature and Philosophy.
  • Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit - grammar and texts.
  • King Asoka’s Edicts- the king’s life and missionary activity, and a comparative
    study of Asokan Prakrit with Pāli and Sanskrit.
  • Abhidhamma     Studies -     the     whole     text     or    nine     chapters     of
    Abhidhammattha.sangaha, a general survey of Abhidhamma Pitaka, written by
    Most Venerable Anuruddha.
    • Buddha’s First Two Sermons - a detailed study of their significance
    • 180 Selected Dhammapada Verses, to be learnt by heart, together with English
      translation and explanation.
      • Buddhist Meditation - Samatha and Vipassana or Calm and Insight meditations.
      • Philosophy - a brief study of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Hinduism, Christian and Islam
      • Basic Hindi - grammar and conversation.
      • Basic Chinese - grammar and conversation.
      • Patimokkha rules for monks.
      • Research Methodology - for carrying out a research or writing thesis.  [Six
        question papers are set for examination each year.]

Program II

Eight year course for Diploma, B. A., M. A. (Buddhist Missionary): [This second program is adopted for the monks, nuns and even laypeople (errespective of sex and religion) who have not passed the Pathamagyi (or Matriculation) examination, and have little or no knowledge of Pāli and Buddhism. To let them have a good knowledge of Pāli and Buddhism, the preliminary one year extra course, called "Basic Diploma (P. A. B. E.) course" is arranged before they are admitted or allowed to attend the University classes proper.]

One year basic Diploma course (P. A. B. E.) - For this course the following subjects are taught:

1. Pāli-grammar and lessons (P1&P 2):- The basic Pāli grammar together with the (corresponding) Pāli exercises for translations. [Two question papers are set for examination.]

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1. 2. Abhidhamma (A 1 &A2): The whole Abhidhammatthasangaha, a handbook of
   Abhidhamma Pitaka, is taught. [Two question papers are set for examination.]
2. Buddhism (B 1 & B 2): (i) The life of Buddha; some important stories from
   the “Dhammapadavatthu” and “Petavatthu”, which describe the various good and
   bad deeds that invariably produce their corresponding good and bad results in order
   to give the students the knowledge of “cause and effect”. (ii) The noteworthy basic
   principles  of Dhamma to be  followed by  the  Buddhists,  as  explained in
   the “Mangala Sutta” and “Singalovada Sutta; the virtues of Buddha, Dhamma and
   Sangha; various moral precepts to be avoided and practiced; the doctrine of “Law
   of Causation”   (=Paticcasamuppada  doctrine)   and  some  important ways  of
   “Meditation Practice”. [ Two question papers are set for examination.]
3. Basic English (one question paper) only for those who are not matriculated yet.

Two year (advanced) Diploma course: same as the two year Diploma course in Program I. [ Six question papers are set for examination each year.]

• Two year B. A. course:- As this course is meant for the missionary purposes, four
  papers concerning the language studies (three papers for Three Pitakas, and one
  paper for Sanskrit text or Hitopadesa vatthu and Prakrits) are left out; instead of
  them,
  • History of Burma (Myanmar) and
  • History of other ancient Buddhist countries,
  • Geography of Burma and
  • Geography of other ancient Buddhist countries,
  • Health and Medicine- traditional and modern;
  • 180 Selected Dhammapada verses to be learnt by heart, and to be translated,
    giving an illustrative story concerning each of those verses.
  • Essays on Buddhism- same as the Program I. [ Six question papers are set for
    examination each year.]

Three year M. A. course:

• Visuddhimagga in Burmese (Myanmar).
• Instead  of Buddhist  (Hybrid)   Sanskrit and King Asoka’s Edicts,  we  teach
  the manifold Buddhist doctrines contained in ‘Milindapañha (King Milinda’s
  Questions), in Burmese, and Ledi Sayadaw’s works in Burmese (Samma.ditthi-
  dipani, Catusacca-dipani, Magganga-dipani, Niyama-dipani), and 16 meanings of
  Four Noble Truths.
• The remaining subjects are the same as Program I. [Six question papers are set for
  examination each year.]

Program III

In order to more affectively carry out our Buddhist missionary tasks throughout our country, our “Buddhist University” (Mandalay and Rangon) is preparing to open, in future, “Buddhist Missionary Colleges” in the monasteries existing in

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the important district towns (about 20 in number) situated in the Seven Divisions and Seven States of Burma, year by year, since about the end of 2008, for giving a rare (golden) opportunity of learning Buddhism, Pāli, Sanskrit, Philology and English (covering the Basic and Advanced Diploma courses) to the monks, nuns and even laypeople, who are not lucky (fortunate) enough to live in Mandalay and Rangon, the most important cities of Burma. Those who have passed the Basic and Advanced Diploma examinations are, for their further study, admitted to “Buddhist University” for B. A. and M. A. degrees, either in Mandalay and Rangon.

U Myint Swe’s Method of Teaching Pāli

My method of teaching Pāli is based on Sanskrit grammar and effective and easy, but it is different from the method adopted by both the traditional and modern Pāli grammarians. For, I like to introduce the 4 vowels “r, f, ai, au” used in Sanskrit into Pāli which has only 8 vowels, and 12 vowels should be used for grammatical explanation of some peculiar Pāli words.

It is very necessary to know 3 grades of vowels, used in Sanskrit (and Pāli) thus- (i) Mūla or Primary or Simple vowels- “a; ā; i; ī; u; ū; r; r;” [ "lr, If, -rarely used in Sanskrit are left out"]; (ii) If “a / ā” + “i / ī; u / ū; r / r” are combined, then we get their corresponding Guna vowels- “e; o; ar”; (iii) If “a / ā” + “e, o, ar” are combined, then we get their corresponding Vrddhi (vuddhi) vowels- “ai; au; ār”.

In other words, (i) if the Mūla vowels- “i / ī; u / ū; r / f” are protracted, then (ii) we get their corresponding Guna vowels- “e, o, ar” which can again be protracted to get (iii) their corresponding Vuddhi vowels- “ai, au, ār”.

In reverse order, (iii) if the Vuddhi vowels- “ai, au, ar” are contracted (reduced), then (ii) we get their corresponding Guna vowels- “e, o, ar”, which can again be contracted to get (i) their corresponding Mūla vowels- “i / ī; u / ū; r / f”. See the diagram (table) below which shows (the fixed law) how the vowels (except “a, ā”) become 3 grades and how they interchange with their corresponding semi-vowels (or semi-consonants):

[Remarks- "ar, al, ār, āl" are not pure (true) vowels, but only forms derived from their respective vowels.] Of these 3 grades of vowels, the Mūla vowel is an undividable or indivisible vowel, (unlike the other “compound” or diphthong Guna and Vuddhi vowels. Again, “Root” (dhātu) is an undividable or indivisible (principle) part of the words.

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So most (or 90%) of the roots used in Sanskrit (and Pāli) must contain the undividable or indivisible Mūla vowels. According to Sanskrit, “all the verbs, participles and (primary) nouns are derived from the roots”. According to this theory, if the Mūla vowels containing in the roots are protracted to get their corresponding Guna and Vuddhi vowels, to which the suffixes (and verbal terminations) are added, then we get the verbs, participles and (primary) nouns. I will explain some Pāli words according to the above diagram (table) which shows the above mentioned changes of 3 grades of vowels:

* ati> aty + anta= S. atynta= P. accanta- “ty> cc”(=perpetual)

* jāti> jāty + ā (=Instr. sg.) S. jatyā= P. jaccā (= by birth, caste).

* nadī> nady + am (loc. sg.) = S. nadyam = P. najjar- “dy>jj”- (=on the river).

* Vji + ta= S. P. jita (= to be conquered).

* Vji> je + tum= P. jetuf (= in order, to conquer).

* Vji> je> jay + a + ti= S. P. jayati [ P. jeti-— "aya>e" ] (= to conquer).

*  Vji> jai> jāy + aya (Caus.)= S. P. jāyayati [ P. jāyeti--"aya>e"- ](= to cause to
conquer).

*  Vnl + ta= S. P. nīta (= to be carried / led).

*  Vrfi> ne> nay + a + ti= S. P. nayati [ P. neti-- "aya> e" ] (= to lead).

*  Vrfi> nai> nāy + aka= S. P. nāyaka (= a leader).

* tu> tv + eva= S. P. tveva.

* bhū> bhv + ādi= bhvādi or bhuvādi (‘Vbhu’ etc.)

* Vhu + ta= S. P. huta (=an oblation)

* Vbhu + ta= S. P. bhūta (=a being)

* Vbhu> bho> bhav + a + ti= S. P. bhavati [ P. bhoti--"ava> o" ] (= to be /become).

* A/bhu>bhau>bhav +aya (Caus.)=S. P. bhāvayati [ P. bhāveti- "aya> e"] (=to develop).

r. r > ar> ār r

* Vdrs> dras + tavya= S. drastavya=P datthabba (=to be seen / noted).

* A/drs>drak + syati= S. draksyati= P. dakkhati (= will see).

* a/hit + ta= S. mrta= P. mata-”r>a” (=dead).

* A/mr> mar + a + ti= S. P. marati (= to die).

* A/mr> mār + aya (caus.) + ti= S. P. mārayati, [ P. māreti--"aya>e" ] (= to kill).

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* Vkr + ta= S. krta= P. kata, kita– [= r> a, i ]- (=to be done).

* Vkr> kar + u> o + ti= S. P. karoti (= to do).

* Vkr> kur + u + te= S. P. kurute (= to do).

* Vkr> kur + u> va + te= * S. kurvate= P. kubbate (=to do).

* Vkr> kār + aya (caus.) + ti= S. P. kārayati, [ P. kāreti ]-(=to cause to do).

* Vtr> tar + a + ti= S. P. tarati (= to cross).

* Vtr> tīr + na= S. tirna= P. tinna (=to be crossed).

* Vpf> pūr + na= S. purna= P. punna (= full, complete).

* Vkr> kīr + na= S. kirna= P. kinna (= to be scattered).

* aVcr> cīr + na= S. acirna= P. acinna (= to be habitually practised).

* Vdhr + ti= S. dhrti= P. dhiti–”r>i”- (= courage).

* udA/dhr + tya= S. uddhrtya= P. uddhacca~”r>a”~ (= distraction).

* Vkr + tya= S. krtya= P. kicca– “r>i”- (= work, duty).

* kuVkr + tya= S. kukrtya= P. kukkucca~”r>u”- (=remorse).

* Vbhr + ta + ka= S. bhrtaka= P. bhataka– “r>a”- (=hired servant).

* Vbhr + tya= S. bhrtya= P. bhacca ~”r>a”- (=servant).

* aVhr + ta= S. ahrta= P. ahata (= to be brought).

* S. grha= P. gaha, geha– “r>a, e”– (= house).

* S. grhin= P. gihī– “r>i”~ (= a layman).

[ Remarks:- From the above-mentioned few examples it is clear that it is better to use the roots with vowel 'r / (r)' as in Sanskrit (i. e, Vkr, Vdhr, Vbhr, Vmr, Vhr, Vtr, and so on) rather than to use the Pāli roots with- 'ar' (the Gunated form of 'r, f ~i. e.,Vkar, Vdhar, Vbhar, Vmar, Vhar, Vtar and so on.), because the vowel 'r (r)' used in Sanskrit can be changed into 'a, i, u, e' in Pāli and so on, as explained above.]

Moreover:

(1) Nouns ending in vowel V:

It is better to use, as in Sanskrit, ending in vowel V (or made of suffix ‘tr’), such as-”matr, pitr, bhratr, dhatr, satthr” etc., because ‘r’ used in Sanskrit is changed into “a, i, u, ar / ār” in Pāli and is useful in explaining the different Pāli forms, such as- “matanaf, mātito, mātyā=mātuyā=mātarā, matanaf, mataranaf, mātaro, satthāro, satthārānam” etc. But in Pāli, these nouns are recognized as the nouns ending in vowel ‘u’, such as, “mātu, pītu, satthu,” etc., which cannot logically explain the above-mentioned peculiar Pāli forms.

(2)  Nouns and prefixes ending in consonants:

Again, (i) in Sanskrit there are so many nouns ending in various consonants. (a) Some of them are made by adding the suffixes- “at, mat, vat; an, man, van; in, min, vin; as, is, us; yas, vas”, and (b) some are the ordinary (or root-like) nouns, such as- “path, pad, gir, dis, vāc, vacas, krt, āp, sat” etc. These consonantal nouns used in Sanskrit are very useful in explaining some peculiar Pāli forms, such as- (a) * “raññā, rañño; S. karman- i= P. kammani; dandin-a, dandin.o.; sāmin-ā, sāmin.o.; medhāvin.ā, medhāvin.o; arahā or arahaf;   arahat-ā,  arahat.o.;   satimat.ā,   satimat.o;  bhagavat.ā,  bhagavat.o;  vacas.ā;

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manas.ā, manas.o, manas.i; S. saumanas.ya= P. somanassa; S. karman.ya.tā= P. kammaññatā; (b) S. vāc.ā= P. vācāya”. S.P. pathi; S. sadbhi-= P. sabbhir; S. suhrd= P. suhada (=friend); S. suhrdya= P. suhajja (=friendship;) S. P. evaf sati (=if it is so); S. krt= P. kita; S. satām= P. sataf (= of virtuous men); But those consonantal nouns used in Sanskrit are, in Pāli, changed into the nouns ending in vowels, which cannot logically explain the above-mentioned peculiar Pāli words.

Again, (ii) of the prefixes or prepositions (upasagga), “ud, nir, dur, sat” used in Sanskrit (“u, ni, du, saf” in Pāli), too, play an important part in explaining some peculiar Pāli words. Examples- “ud” S. P.- ud-īrati; S. P. ud-āna, S. udgacchati= P. uggacchati–”dg> gg”- by assimilation). * “Nir”- S. P. nir-āhāra; S. nir.ukti= P. nir.utti; S. nir.gacchati= P. niggacchati. * “Dur”:- S. dur.ukta= P. durutta; S. dur.gati= P. duggati.* “Sat”:-S. sat.purusa= P. sappurisa; S. sad.dharma= P. saddhamma.

(3) Roots, “nouns” and prefixes beginning with double consonants are used in Sanskrit, but in Pāli they are reduced to single consonants at the beginning of words, by assimilating them and dropping the first consonants; but these assimilated double consonants reappear, in Pāli, when they are in the middle of words.

Examples:- * S. VkrI- krl-nati= P. (k)kinati; S. vikrinati= P. vikkinati. S. Vsmr-smr> smar.a.ti= smarati= P.(s)sarati; S. anu.smarati= P. anu.ssarati. * S. Vgrah-grahana= P. (g)gahana; S. anu.grahana= P. anu.ggahana. S. Vkram- kramana= P. (k)kamana; S. anukramana= P. anukkamana. * S. “pra”– pra.māda= P. (p)pamāda; S. apramāda= P. appamāda. S. pramana= P. (p)pamana; S. apramana= P. appamana. * S. “prati”– pratyaya= P. (p)paccaya; S. a.pratyaya= P. appaccaya. S. pratyaksa= P. (p)paccakkha; S. a.pratyaksa= P. appaccakkha.

An Approach to Buddhist Ethic through Pāli Language

Ven. Dr. Nodhinana ITBMU, Yangon, Myanmar

The root of Buddhist ethics lies in the vast literature of two important schools: Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhist schools. The doctrine of two schools is preserved by two languages: Pāli Language for the former and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit for the later. One should inevitably learn one of these two languages to delve into Buddhist literature and grasp the true meaning of literature of these two schools. It is not deniable that if one really wants to know how Buddhist ethics are described in the Texts and what is truly meant by the words of the Buddha with regard to ethics, one should have some extent of skill in the languages concerned. It is not possible to say that one truly goes into the deeper level of Buddhist ethics, if he merely seeks its true and exact interpretation – relying always on the translations of text.

Here particularly my discussion will concentrate on the importance of Pāli in Theravāda Buddhism and the method of teaching it. Pāli protects Theravāda Buddhism from damage to its pristine purity, and is officially recognized as the only language of the Theravāda School by the order of Sangha – throughout its peaceful march of more than 2500 years. Both Pāli and Theravāda Buddhism are inseparably interlinked with each other. It can be said that if today Pāli vanishes from this earth, tomorrow there will be certainly the end of Theravāda Buddhism. Therefore, all Buddhists including laypeople should learn Pāli in every possible way. It is probable to say that if people have more familiarity with Pāli, there is the less possibility of quick disappearance of Theravāda Buddhism. For the promulgation of Buddha’s teaching, the study of Pāli should not be reserved only for Buddhist monks, but it should be also for lay people because their participation in learning Pāli will be one of effective ways of keeping Buddha’s teachings lasting longer. It can be seen that all over the world there is increasing number of lay people who are interested in Theravāda Buddhism and are eager to learn Pāli. As I have mentioned above, it can be taken that learning Pāli is helpful not only for the information of ethics but also for the practice or the propagation and perpetuation of Buddha’s teaching. There is no need to say that the purpose of learning Pāli is to fully and exactly understand the genuine words of the Lord Buddha in Five Nikāyas. It is extremely substantial to find out methods bringing us into the perfect comprehension of Pāli within short period and makes us easily access the original suttas and thus understand Buddhist ethics.

When Pāli is first taught to the students, the method should be so direct and simple that within a few month students could read original canonical suttas. Time should not be wasted on some difficult parts of grammar only intended for advanced learners and Pāli scholars. Therefore, the teacher should teach them important grammatical points only which a Pāli student should have known. For the remaining detailed and complicated grammatical rules, the teacher should discuss with his students while reading Pāli suttas. One improves his knowledge of any language by getting much experience of reading.

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Sometimes the nature and formation of Pāli words should be explained to the students by comparing them with their own language or a language to which they have already learned. It is extremely necessary for them to understand the basic patterns of Pāli sentences and the formation of words. By understanding them, they come to know that Pāli is also a kind of human language and is accessible to anyone. For the Pāli teacher, the first thing to do before teaching Pāli is that one should get rid of student’s preconceived idea that Pāli is a divine language and is so intricate that it could not be understood by ordinary people. I do not mean that Pāli is not the sacred language, but I would like to just give people a message that if one has strong wish to comprehend it, he could get true knowledge of Pāli. It is very important to let students know that if anyone acquires a good method of learning Pāli, one will be skillful at Pāli in any condition.

The best way is to start from verbs when learning or teaching Pāli. Most of words are derived from verbal roots and most of sentence structures are built depending on verbs. The teacher should teach conjugation of Pāli verbs first and then should explain the formation and structure of those verbs. Before conjugation is explained, one should introduce students to seven types of verbal groups considered by different conjugational signs. As a second step, students should know the tenses used in Pāli. Pāli has more precise explanation of tenses than any other modern languages, but the usage of tenses, sometimes, is more flexible. It is found that even the commentators use the present form of verb to mean past time in their commentaries. The following are various tenses with their Pāli names:

(1)     Present (Vattamāna)

(2)     Imperative (Pañcamī)

(3)     Optative (Sattamī)

(4)     Imperfect (Hiyyattanī)

(5)     Aorist (Ajjatanī)

(6)     Perfect (Parokkhā)

(7)     Future (Bhavissanti)

(8)     Conditional (Kālātipatti)

For the beginner, a study of Pāli should begin from the Present mode of verbs, especially Active (parassapada) of Present only, because it is easier for them to learn and recite it. Based on Present, different verbal groups such as Bhūvādi, Rudādi and so on can be explained. It is better for them to recite the conjugation of Present mode with different conjugational signs of verbal groups, which makes them easily remember these complicated forms of verbs. The verbal groups should be explained as follows:

Name of Verbal groups                                      Conjugational Signs

(1)  Bhūvādi ‘a’

(2) Rudādi                                                            \m) a’

(3)  Divādi                                                             ‘ya’

(4)  Svādi                                                               ‘nu, na, una’

(5)  Kiyādi                                                             ‘nā’

(6)  Tanādi ‘o, yira’

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(7) Curādi ‘(n)e, (n)aya’

Remark: The Kaccāyana ‘ganhatV explains the gahādi group using the conjugational sign ‘nha‘; but from philological aspect it can be formed as ‘gah+nā+ti’ and by transposing the places of ‘h’ and ‘n’, it becomes ‘ganhati’. So according to modern philologists gahādi group is not needed to explain the word ‘ganhati’.

It can be seen that depending on a particular root, conjugation can be made with different tenses or based on a particular tense, conjugation can be made with various types of verbal groups. It is very important not to forget that for the particular tense or verbal group exercises should be arranged at the end of lessons because it is very helpful to test their understanding and their memory of lessons. Along with the conjugation of verbs, some nouns, adjectives and adverbs should be introduced to the students. Sometimes students should be asked about the vocabulary and grammar in each lesson to check whether they really understood or not. They should be asked to translate Pāli sentences into English or from English into Pāli. In this way, students will pay more attention to each lesson, at the same time they will have more confidence in learning Pāli lessons.

After teaching conjugation, it is time to introduce them to the declension of nouns. According to the tradition of Pāli grammar texts, there are thirteen types of declensions of Pāli nouns and pronouns which are subdivided under the ending vowels of each noun, namely, (1) Manoganadi (2) Purisādi (3) Gunavadi (4) Pumādi (5) Gacchantādi (6) Satthādi (7) Nadādi (8) Gahapatādi (9) Sabbanāma (10) Cittādi (11) Kaññādi (12) Rājādi (13) Rattādi. These thirteen different groups of nouns that are included in particular division of declension should be pointed out, to enhance the appreciation of noun-declension. But before starting declension, it is necessary to clarify genders and cases of nouns and most of all, to explain that gender in Pāli is completely different from that of most modern languages. While students are learning declension of nouns, the teacher should explain about cases with examples. It is not adequate to give mere explanations of each case without stating how it is used in the sentences. At first some useful pronouns which are frequently met in the Pāli scriptures should be initiated to the students such as ayam (this), ime (these), imā (these), tvam (you), ko (who), kā (who) and so on. They should be taught how personal pronouns are joined with the corresponding verbs and how statement sentences are changed into interrogative and negative ones. For example:

Ahampacami. (I cook.)                   Mayam pacāma. (We cook)

Tvam pacasi. (You cook)                    Tumhe pacatha. (You cook)

So pacati. (He cooks.)                         Te pacanti. (They cook.)

For interrogative sentences:

So pacati nu (Does he cook?)           Te pacanti nu (Do they cook?)

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For negative sentences:

So napacati. (He does not cook.)    Te napacanti. (They do not cook.)

Pāli grammar works, such as the Kaccāyana and the Moggalāna byakarana, tell us that there are seven cases in Pāli language, namely, Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive and Locative Cases. It is possible to say that Nominative Case in Pāli is equivalent to ‘subject’ in English and Accusative to ‘object’. Instrumental can be generally rendered as ‘with, by’ in English, Dative as ‘to or for’, Ablative as ‘from’, Genitive as ‘of’, Locative as ‘in, on, upon and at’. It can be said that the understanding of sentences in Pāli texts lies in the knowledge of Cases. So each Case should be explained in detail with full examples. Otherwise, declension and conjugation will be meaningless to the students. This makes them understand the relationship of Cases in the sentence. It is a great help for them to approach the original suttas that they come to discern, how Cases in the sentences are related to each other. If the teacher gives some exercises for each Case, it makes them more understandable and attracts greater interest in Pāli. Besides, some prefixes like ‘pa, parā, ni,’; some particles such as ‘hi, ca andpana’; and some adverbs such as ‘ettha, tattha, tatra and yato’ – should be told to the students while they are studying the declensional structure of nouns.

And then, some basic grammatical points such as the usage of ‘kriyāvisesana’ (adverb), ‘kāla-accanta (duration of time), ‘‘ addhā-accanta’ (distance), ‘anādara’ (genitive and locative absolute) and so on, which are exceedingly needed for reading canonical suttas, should be explained with some examples. The Accusative case can be used as ‘kriyāvisesana’ (adverb): ‘manussā sigham gacchanti’ (people go quickly). It also expresses ‘kāla-accanta’ (duration of time): ‘masam mamsodanam bhuñjati, (he eats the curried rice the whole month). ‘Addhā-accanta’ (distance) is also expressed by the Accusative case: ‘gavutam pabbato dīgho’ (the mountain is a gāvuta long). The term ‘anādara’ means that one does not take any account of something or someone else. It can be put in Genitive and Locative case: ‘dārakassa rudato pitā pabbajati, dārake rudantasmim pitā pabbajati (he enters into the order of Samgha while his son (boy) weeps).

After having the skill of conjugation and declension acquired, the teacher, as a third step, should give his students a brief account of ‘samāsa (compound), taddhita (secondary derivative) and kita (primary derivative). Two or more words combined together to form a single term are called a compound (samāsa). There are several varieties of compounds in Pāli. Of the first variety, the member is generally an adjective and the second one is a noun. Crude forms (stems) are combined and the last member is declined according to its own gender. It is ‘Samāsa’ which is one of fundamental features of Pāli language and which is inevitably met in Scriptures. It can be divided into six; abyayībhāva (Adverbial Compounds), kammadhāraya (Descriptive Determinate Compounds), digu (Numeral Determinate Compounds), tappurisa (Dependant Determinate Compounds), bahubbīhi (Relative or Attributive Compounds) and dvanda (Copulative or Aggregative Compounds). When words are formed by adding suffixes to nouns, they are called ‘taddhita’ (Secondary Derivative). The suffixes

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that are to be added to nouns are classified into six groups as, ‘apacca (Patronymics), anekattha (Miscellaneous), assatthi (Possession), sankhya (Numeral), bhāva (Abstract), abyaya (Pronominal). Kita (Primary Derivative) is formed by adding suffixes to roots or verbal bases. The common suffixes for Primary Derivative are ‘ta, tvā, tum, tabba and aniya’.

As I have discussed above, it is indispensable for a student to know the information on some basic grammatical points such as declension, conjugation and syntax of sentences, the word-formations like compound, primary derivatives and secondary derivatives before reading sutta literature. But it is assumed that after learning them, it is better to make students directly read the canonical suttas rather than to waste time analyzing some insignificant and complicated parts of grammar. At that time they may need some complete Pāli-English Dictionary, for their Pāli vocabulary may not be rich enough to read the suttas. It is clear that he must need his teacher’s help in the beginning of his reading when some sentence patterns and idiomatic usages of Pāli gets confusing. With help of the basic knowledge of grammar and dictionary, students will solve problems for themselves, to some extent the problems encountered in the procedural study of the original suttas. It is certain that the suggestions and advice of a teacher speed up the progress of his knowledge of Pāli language and literature. Gradually, they will have a lot of experience of reading Pāli. While teaching suttas, the teacher should sometimes introduce the commentarial and sub-commentarial way of defining of Pāli words to the students. Thus, the students will have a method of reading commentarial and sub-commentarial literature. It is assumed that after learning the essential points of grammar, which helps reading canonical literature, the direct study of suttas encourage the rapid acquisition and improvements in the knowledge of Pāli.

If one studies Pāli according to the method discussed above, one witnesses the real ‘Buddha’ – and enjoys the taste of canonical literature. The knowledge of Pāli will greatly assist ones who need the necessary information on the ethics of Theravāda Buddhism. The misinterpretation of a Pāli word leads one to the misunderstanding of Buddhist ethics.

References:

Kaccayana-Byakarana by Ācāriya Kaccāyana

Moggalana-Byakarana by Ācāriya Moggalāna

Padarūpasiddhi by Ācāriya Buddhappiya

Pāli Language and Literature by Wilhelm Geiger

Pāli Made Easy by Ven. Ānada Metteyya

Palisikkhā and a Brief Account of Grammar by Ven. Ashin Janakabhivamsa

The Wonder that was India by A. L. Basham

A Historical Look at Pāli Studies in Thailand

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Somjin Sammāpañño¹

Deputy Rector for Academic Affairs

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Introduction:

After the Third Buddhist Council, Bhikkhus Sona and Uttara the Elder along with their party came to introduce Buddhism into Suvannabhumi Region. Buddhism has become the religion of the people in this region since then. Buddhism may have been introduced into Thailand through at least² three channels:

(1)  Over land: walking through ancient Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand

(2)  By Sea:

a.) Sailing along the coastlines and penetrating into Bengal, Mataban, Tavoy, and over the Tanaosri Range, into what is now Thailand.

b.)    Sailing around through the Straits of Malacca and up the Malay

¹ Although most portions of this article were previously published for the Association of Theravada Buddhist Universities Conference in 2007,I felt that this article should be updated to include new annual stats, and acknowledge the effort by Mr. Dion Peoples, a PhD Candidate in Buddhist Studies, at MCU with a previous Master of Arts in Thai Studies. He greatly assisted with the revision of this article in terms of historical content, and English grammar – providing editor footnotes and other data, including a re-designed conclusion to fit the scope of the current symposium.

Editor’s note – This should not exclude the importance of Sri Lanka or Southern Indians and their efforts to disseminate Buddhism as well. Not everything originated from out of the Ganges -to spread Buddhism. According to tradition, Sukhothai Kingdom is the first kingdom of Thai people, but familiarization with Buddhism came several hundred years earlier. About 600 years after the Buddha past way, the Ai Lao people in Yunnan, China had already converted to Buddhism. As the Mongol influence drove the Thai’s southward, Thai’s began to form into city muang’s; Thai’s would become more and more familiar with Theravada Buddhism. However, we should look at Thailand not as a whole, but in four distinguishable regions, almost like historical stages: the East, the North, the South, and finally, the Central region. In the East: Indian cultural influences spread in several directions [either by land or by sea, indeed as Dr. Somjin suggests here] -’one’ region where Hindu-Brahmanism/Buddhism developed was in present-day Cambodia. The ancient Khmer people built a vast empire, extending to parts of Vietnam, Laos, and most of Thailand. Mahayana Buddhism was also fashionable for some time. Present-day remains of this vast Hindu-Brahmanism/Mahayana Khmer Empire extend into Lopburi, Phanom Rung, Phi Mai, and other areas, including Sukhothai – once under a Khmer governor. In the North: as the kingdom/princedom of Yunnan/Nanchao disintegrated, the Thai people moved further south, eventually forming the first true Thai kingdom, in Sukhothai – removing the Khmer from power. We should not forget about the development of the Lanna Kingdom that developed north of Sukhothai, and other surrounding kingdoms. In the South: Mahayana was established but later disappeared, Theravada arose, and Mahayana came back as a minor religion…  Islam also was established about 700 years ago, in the South. In the Central Region, the shaping of modern day Thailand took place.  Sukhothai was absorbed by the Ayutthaya kingdom, which also conquered the former Khmer region and incorporated most of the Malaysian Peninsula, according to some published maps. Further purges and the cleaning up of Buddhism led to the establishment of Buddhism as we know it today. Interactions or the exchanging of Sangha members from the past, assisted in continuing an unbroken lineage of monks dating from the time of the Buddha. Most kings, in the Theravada tradition, have ensured the security of Buddhism – some even became monks, at some point in their life. By understanding a deeper sense of the establishment of Buddhism in the different regions of Thailand, one can witness the vitality that existed in former times. However, with the centralization processes that occurred with the expansion of the Dhammayutika-nikaya, many regional characteristics were lost from ‘Thai’ Buddhism.

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Peninsula – to Nagara Sri Dhammaraja and Champa, and back into what is now central-Thailand or the Chao Phraya river-region.

In the beginning, Buddhist literary works were introduced into Thailand through these channels; but there is no clear-cut evidence preserved, allowing us to know what form of literary works existed at that time – perhaps oral, and then in the form of inscriptions, or another form. As we know, many Buddhist literary works were written and preserved at the Nalanda Mahavihara – in India, when this university and others prospered. Some of those works were introduced into Thailand, such as The Questions of King Menander – the Milindapanha. When Buddhist literary works were written in Lanka, many works were introduced simultaneously into Thailand, as well. Therefore, nowadays: fifty-two commentaries, such as the commentary of Vinaya Pitaka entitled Samantapasadika, the commentary to the of Suttanta Pitaka’s Dīgha-Nikāya entitled Sumangalavilasini, the commentary of Abhidhamma Pitaka’s Dhammasangāni entitled Atthasalīni have been well known to Thai monks and laypeople interested in Pāli Studies. Apart from these, there are other important Buddhist scriptures: Nettipakarana, Petakopadesa, Visuddhimagga, Vimuttimagga, Abhidhammavatara, Dipavamsa, and the Mahavamsa – all well known to Thai monks and laypeople.

Pāli Studies in Thai History:

During the Sukhothai Period, there was an influx of Buddhist literary works from foreign countries to Thailand because of many factors³, listed in the footnote and text above. King Ramkhamhaeng the Great, of Sukhothai – played two key roles at the same time: ruling the country and teaching the Buddha’s Dhamma. King Lithai of Sukhothai also invited the monks to come and study the Tipitaka along with various arts inside Royal Palace.⁴

³ Editor’s footnote: according to a recent paper delivered by Dr. G. Deivanayagam, of Tamil University,
Thanjavur, South-India – entitled: The Interactions of the Chola Empire in the Chao Phraya Delta – there
was a considerable Tamil presence in Sukhothai for some considerable amount of time – including around the
Chao Phraya River Basin. See his full article from the Proceedings of the International Conference: The
Chao Phraya Delta: Historical Development, Dynamics and Challenges of Thailand’s Rice Bowl. Vol 2. 12-15
Dec. 2000, Kasetsart University, Bangkok:

http://std.cpc. ku.ac.th/delta/conf/Acrobat/Papers_Eng/Volume%202/deivanayagam.pdf

⁴ Editor’s footnote: King Lithai also authored the culturally influential Traibhumikatha [or the Verses of the
Three Worlds] – teflflnffl – This is arguably the single most influential text written by a Thai person. The
book was originally written about Buddhism. During the Sukhothai Period of Thai history, King Lithai – the
fifth of the Kings of the Phra Ruang Dynasty wrote the Traibhumikatha – The Story of the Three Planes of
Existence [sometimes translated as The Three Worlds according to King Lithai], in 1345 CE. What is
important about this ancient text is that it contains a bibliography, references, an introduction and a
conclusion – as well as a list of names of Buddhist scholars that assisted King Lithai in Buddhist wisdom.
Many works of art are modeled on the Traibhumikatha – architecture, temple paintings, inscriptions, and
more. In fact, Thai Buddhism is still influenced from this work today; the following paragraphs explain how:
Here are the minor-book headings within the Table of Contents: The Three Planes of Existence; Hell; The
Animal Kingdom; The Spirit World; The Domain of Asura; Humanity; The Four Quarters of the World; The
Universal King; Historical Personages [People]; Some Important Matters; Lesser Gods and Angels;

The Higher Non-Sensual Gods; Incorporeality; The Book of Nature; The Book of Ages; Nibbana.. King Lithai tells his readers that he uses the Thai language from the City of Sri Satchanalai – where he served as the second king – the uparat; tells the source texts that assisted him, the names of the monks he studied Dhamma with, and that he even traveled to the Mon nation of Haribhunjaya [between Myanmar and Thailand] – for lessons from another learned elder monk. King Lithai was fortunate enough to have no foreign invasions during his reign. He was the first Thai king to ordain as a monk. He sent for monks and a

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Some passages in book entitled “Tao Srichulalak”⁵ tell us that some monks were well-versed in one, or two, or four, or five volumes of Vinaya Pitaka, some monks were well-versed in forty, one-hundred, or many more Suttas in Suttanta Pitaka, some monks were well-versed in ten, or many more of bhanavara in Abhidhamma Pitaka.

In the Lanna Kingdom, the arrival of Buddhist literary works from foreign countries resulted in Buddhist scholar-monks around Chiang Mai and surrounding Thai areas. One of these scholars, Phra Sirimangalajarn, wrote many Buddhist literary works: the Mangalatthadipani [a commentary on the Mangala Sutta], Vessantaradipani [a commentary on the Vessantara Jātaka], and other works.

However, Pāli studies in Sukhothai and Lanna had not been systematized into: curriculum of study, grade of study and examinations. Later on though, in the Ayutthaya period 1893-2310BE/1350-1767CE, during the reign of King Narayana (1656-1688), curriculum, teaching activity and examinations were set up. The tradition in examination in those days was oral (mukhapatha). The grades of qualification, are inversely named, and divided into three categories:

• Grade I, or Pariantri – for students who finished translating the Suttanta Pitaka.
• Grade II, or Pariantho – for students who finished translating the Vinaya Pitaka.
  • Grade III, or Parian-ek – for students who finished translating the Suttanta, Vinaya
    and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

In the current Rattanakosin Period, since 2325BE/1782CE to the present -the method of studying Pāli is similar to the model utilized during the Ayutthaya period, only altered somewhat to fit new circumstances. In the reign of King Rama II, 2352-2367 BE/1809-1824 CE, His Holiness the Supreme Patriarch Mi of Wat Ratchabuarana gave an advice to the King to change the system of Pāli study and examination. The grade of study was divided into nine grades: Pāli I-IX. The teachers were called “Royal scholars” (Rajabandit).   The teaching and examination activities were based

relic of the Buddha from Sri Lanka – kept in a stupa/chedi at Nakorn Chum, near Kamphaengphet. His text mentions numerous mythical creatures and even a section on ‘A New World Order’ – detailing: when important events happen, important people come together to discuss the event. Further in that section, he explains the decay of the world, mentioning in the past that people could fly; mentions the qualifications for a Bodhisatta King and distinctions for the various Hindu-Brahmin social castes: warriors, Brahmins, traders/agriculturalists, and hunters/fishermen and other takers of opportunity. He tries to explain aspects of the Abhidhamma in his text, as well. This text was recopied by King Taksin and interestingly by King Rama I; however, King Rama IV and other modern/educated social elite discredited the work on the grounds that it was too mythological and lacked rationality. However this book remains in favorable light because of text portions dealing with performing good actions and avoiding evil, along with the results that can be achieved through cleansing the mind of evil. The law of kamma is seen as the law of reason, because results occur from causes. A modern Buddhist scholar-monk, P. A. Payutto, has written a large text for modern readers -considered a great work of Buddhist scholarship: Buddhadhamma. Buddhadhamma has become the standard or a modern, classic Buddhist text, replacing the Traibhumikatha and the Visuddhimagga. However, as I illustrated, in the “TEACHER’S NOTE” – Please compare the chapter on the New World Order to the story in the Aggaññā Sutta [#27] from the Digha-Nikaya. This chapter follows the sutta, making errors or leaving out details – in an attempt to summarize. Additionally, The Thai National Team for Anthology of ASEAN Literature, most likely, neglects to investigate the Aggaññā Sutta for parallel meanings. One may personally witness divergent ‘Buddhist’ beliefs emerging from the Traibhumikatha. The Buddha gives the Aggaññā Sutta to Vasettha and Bharadvaja – two Brahmins hoping to become monks, and merely ends with the Brahmins rejoicing.  See: King Lithai: “Traibhumikatha” as translated by the Thai National Team for Anthology of ASEAN Literature, Volume Ia, (ASEAN: 1985)

⁵ According to an informal source: The legend of Tao Srichulalak suggests she is a princess during the Sukhothai Period, and originator of the Thai ‘Loy Kratong’ festival or holiday that pays respects to the river-spirits.

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from Wat Phrasirattanasatsadaram (Temple of the Emerald Buddha).

In the reign of King Rama VI, 2453-2468BE/1910-1925CE, the grade structure was reorganized, again:

(1)   Grade I-III: Pariandhamtri (Pariandham I)

(2)   Grade IV-VI: Pariandhamtho (Pariandham II)

(3)   Grade VII-IX: Pariandham-ek (Pariandham III)

Apart from this, a new section of ecclesiastical education has been established for Dhamma Study (Nakdham) and the grade of study has been divided into three as follows:

(1)             Grade I (Nakdhamtri)

(2)             Grade II (Nakdhamtho)

(3)             Grade III (Nakdham-ek)

Along with this, each grade (of Nakdham) has been fixed as the prerequisite of Pāli Studies as follows:

(1)   Grade I (Nakdhamtri) as the prerequisite of Pāli Studies grade I-III

(2)   Grade II (Nakdhamtho) as the prerequisite of Pāli Studies grade IV-VI

(3)   Grade III (Nakdham-ek) as the prerequisite of Pāli Studies grade VII-IX

Later on, in a reign of King Rama VII, the method of examination changed from Oral examinations to written examinations and the Pāli Studies curriculum became fixed for Grades I-IX (in 2470 BE/1927 CE), as follows:

In the present reign, under King Rama IX (King Bhumipol Adulyadej), Somdet Phra Buddhaghosajarn (Phuen Jutindharo) of Wat Samphraya, Bangkok, was the Chief of Royal Pāli Section. In 2507 BE/ 964 CE, His Holiness changed the Pāli Studies curriculum a little bit to reflect the structural changes that occurred since the time of King Rama VI. New subjects were added to Grades IV-IX – details of this curriculum are illustrated in the next section.

Up until this period, the principle structure of ecclesiastical administration involving Pāli Studies had not changed.   The quality of graduates has always been

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emphasized over quantity of graduates. Pertaining to only Pāli Grade IX – the topmost level of ecclesiastical Pāli Studies – in some academic years, there are no monks or novices passing examinations. In other years, only a few monks or novices were successful; but this case does not matter at all. All the graduates of Pāli IX must be highly qualified – capable to translate all Pāli passages into Thai or any other language. In the meantime, they must be able to write and speak Thai very well.

Pāli Studies in the Present Day Thailand:

Pertaining to Pāli Studies in present-day Thailand, the ecclesiastical education of the Thai Sangha in Pāli Studies is divided into nine grades and the textbooks for each grade are as follows:

A Historical Look at Pāli Studies in Thailand

Learning and Teaching, Assessment and Evaluation:

In Bangkok, there are 80 authorized ecclesiastical schools of Pāli, while in rural area there are 108 authorized ecclesiastical schools of Pāli in various provinces. But in reality, there many more unauthorized schools throughout the country. In practice, each school can manage all the activities by themselves. Lay devotees, for the most part, financially support ecclesiastical schools of Pāli, only some receive financial support from government as well.

The process of assessment and evaluation is called Royal Pāli Examination, because since ancient times, the Thai Kings carried out this activity involving Pāli Studies by themselves; though recently, in the current Chakri Dynasty, kings reassigned this activity to the government officials. The examinations, though, are still supported by the King.

When examination time nears, Bangkok administrators will decide upon or secure the examination date and location based from advice from the Chief of Royal Pāli Section. Then examination-questions are prepared based from a theme. After this, senior monks are selected by Bangkok administrators to organize the examinations on the fixed date.

The process of assessment and evaluation is very strict. There are many unknown details to learn about. For instance, there are no gain-marks found, there are only loss-marks found. For instance, it can roughly be estimated that the examinees have to gain at least 88% of the marks to pass the subject of Translation Pāli into Thai and vice versa, and at least 75% marks to pass the subject of Pāli Grammar. For evaluation purposes, the score: “H” (“Hai” in Thai) – is given. In each subject, the full score is three Hs – examinees have to gain at least two of three Hs, in every subject to pass each grade. This is a tough system of examination. The Pāli Studies examination from the Thai Sangha is highly regarded as being very difficult. Most monks and novices fail these examinations, annually. We should not consider that it useless and a waste of time; but rather, this is the traditional screening-method utilized by the Thai Sangha.

Interesting Six-Year Statistics:

This number does not yet in include statistics for the results of second examination of academic year 2008.

Buddhism & Ethics Symposium Volume

It is noteworthy that to successfully earn the Pāli IX (Grade IX) – this accomplishment is a very difficult task; thus: from 2325-2551 BE/1782-2008 CE, in some 226 years – only 1,220 monks and novices have graduated with Pāli IX (Grade IX).

Pāli Studies at Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University 1. Pāli Studies in MCU Curriculum:

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University is public ‘autonomous’ university, as the university of the Thai Sangha. MCU gives great attention to Pāli Studies. This kind of education has been provided from its inception and onward into the future. The following are MCU levels of curriculum involving Pāli Studies:

(A)  Curriculum Majoring in Pāli:

• Certificate in Pāli
• Bachelor of Arts in Pāli
• Bachelor of Arts in Pāli Buddhist Studies
• Master of Arts in Pāli

(B)  Pāli Subjects for various programs:

• For the Bachelor of Arts: there are Pāli subjects or related subjects in the group
  of Core-Buddhist Subjects in nearly every course: Pāli Translation, Tipitaka
  Studies, Vinaya Pitaka, Suttanta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka. All MCU
  students in every major have to study these subjects.
• Lay students in the Master Degree program, not having previous studies in
  Pāli or related subjects are required to additionally study: Pāli I and II.
• Pāli Language is one of five foreign languages which the Ph.D. students can
  select for qualifying examination.

2. Scriptures and Books for Pāli Studies

Currently, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University (MCU) carries out many projects, producing scripture and books promoting Pāli Studies in Thailand. There are at least main six projects involving Pāli Studies:

2.1           Pāli Tipitaka, MCU Version (45 vols., completed)

2.2    Thai Tipitaka, MCU Version (45 vols., completed, third edition)

2.3           Pāli Commentary, MCU Version (52 vols., completed)

2.4    Thai Commentary, MCU Version (52 vols., on process)

2.5           Thai Tipitaka in Brief, MCU Version (6 vols., completed)

2.6    Thai Tipitaka on CD, MCU Version (completed)

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Conclusion:

Certainly, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University takes Pāli studies very seriously – as an ‘ethical’ aspect of Buddhist Education. It is widely acknowledged that Pāli is the form of the earliest Buddhist ‘scriptures’ – retained by Theravāda Buddhists. Buddhism can only be accurately understood if one has the thorough ability to maneuver through the intricate texts. Knowing Pāli is an advantageous educational-key to unlocking important ethical situations demonstrated in the Tipitaka. As part of the university catalogue of courses, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University ensures the continuity of Pāli scholarship and ethically preserves ancient/early Buddhism through rigorous examinations.